From [log in to unmask] Jan 30 19:35:56 1997
From: Jamal Mazrui <[log in to unmask]>
I converted the following computer guide from Windows help
format to plain text. The resulting topic order sometimes does
not follow the contents outline. By searching and skimming,
however, blind computer users may find much useful information.
Jamal Mazrui
----------
THE PC OWNER'S SURVIVAL GUIDE
A FREE RESOURCE FROM FIRST TRAIN FOR THE INTERNET,
HTTP://WWW.FIRSTRAIN.COM
This guide is a sample of one of the supplemental resources
included with First Train for the Internet, the complete Internet
help resource for Windows wanderers. The button opens the
navigator window. It contains a variety of information on a
number of computing topics, some controversial, some rather tame,
and is intended to help fill the holes in the knowledge of most
novice to advanced intermediate computer users. It was developed
in response to the concerns, misinformation and questions our
users, clients and friends have expressed. Many features of this
guide are limited or non-existent in this freeware release. See
the enclosed README file for information about redistributing
this software.
Contents
THE PC OWNER'S SURVIVAL GUIDE MAIN MENU 25
SURVIVAL GUIDE INFORMATION CENTER 26
TIPS FOR USING PC OWNER'S SURVIVAL GUIDE 28
EXTENSION SOFTWARE 30
LICENSING INFORMATION 31
LICENSE TERM 1 34
A NOTE TO HELP AUTHORS 42
A DATA COMPRESSION PRIMER 76
UNIVERSALLY USED AND UNIVERSALLY USEFUL 77
A COMPRESSION/ARCHIVING LEXICON 79
HARD DISK COMPRESSION 82
DATA TRANSMISSION COMPRESSION 85
GRAPHIC COMPRESSION 85
FILE COMPRESSION 88
EXECUTABLE COMPRESSION 90
USING DATA COMPRESSION SOFTWARE 93
HOW DATA COMPRESSION PROGRAMS DO THEIR STUFF 94
DATA COMPRESSION SOFTWARE...WHO NEEDS IT? 96
THE LIMITS OF DATA COMPRESSION TECHNOLOGY 98
OTHER DATA COMPRESSION SCHEMES FOR THE PC 99
COPYRIGHTS AND RIGHTS OF USE 101
BACK IT UP! 102
WHAT BACKUPS ARE WHY YOU NEED THEM 103
WHY ARE BACKUPS SO IMPORTANT? 104
DISKS AND DATA AREN'T DAMAGE-PROOF 105
WHY IT PAYS TO HAVE A LOT OF DUPLICATE FILES 107
ARE THERE ANY SHORTCUTS YOU CAN TAKE? 108
THE WHY'S AND HOW'S OF PRESERVING YOUR DATA 109
BACKUPS FROM THE DOS PERSPECTIVE 110
MANUAL VERSUS AUTOMATED BACKUPS 112
WHERE TO STORE BACKUPS 115
WHAT YOU NEED FOR A PROPER BACKUP 116
HOW MUCH ARE YOU PREPARED TO INVEST? 118
THE THREE MOST COMMON TYPES OF BACKUPS 119
FULL BACKUP 120
INCREMENTAL BACKUP 121
PARTIAL BACKUP 123
EMERGENCY BACKUPS 125
COMPACT DISKS 127
WHAT TO BACK UP 129
DISASTER PREVENTION FOR WINDOWS 132
WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT UNINSTALLERS 133
WINDOWS' SIMPLE LOOK IS DECEIVING 134
WINDOWS 3.1/3.11 WON'T MAKE IT EASY FOR YOU 135
WHAT ABOUT THE WINDOWS 95 UNINSTALLER? 136
HOW DO UNINSTALLERS FOR WINDOWS WORK? 138
TWO TYPES: WHICH TO CHOOSE? 140
EMERGENCY BACKUP FOR WINDOWS 142
EMERGENCY BACKUP FOR WINDOWS 143
OUR OWN F-A-S-T EMERGENCY BACKUP 144
COMPUTER AND WORKPLACE ERGONOMICS 145
GENERAL INFORMATION 146
CREATING A USER-FRIENDLY WORKSPACE 147
MONITOR-RELATED STRESSORS 147
COMPUTER-RELATED EMISSIONS 148
MEDICAL DISCLAIMER 149
PHILOSOPHICAL ISSUES: WHY BOTHER AT ALL? 150
SEVEN AREAS OF STRESS MANAGEMENT 155
REPETITIVE STRAIN INJURY (RSI) 156
PREVENTING AND DEALING WITH RSIS 159
KEYBOARD ERGONOMICS 161
WRIST RESTS 163
ELBOW RESTS 165
RELAXATION: THE BEST PREVENTION 168
ALTERNATIVE INPUT DEVICES 169
MOUSE ERGONOMICS 171
EFFECTS OF MONITOR STRESS 174
ELIMINATING GLARE WITH FILTERS AND SCREENS 176
ELIMINATING GLARE WITH COMMON SENSE 177
FLICKER: WHAT IT IS AND WHAT TO DO ABOUT IT 179
FLUORESCENT LIGHTING AND INTERFERENCE FLICKER 182
SCREEN SWAY 184
FLYBACK WEAR: A VERY SERIOUS PROBLEM 186
SCREEN TYPE, SIZE AND DOT PITCH 188
SCREEN RESOLUTION 192
SCREEN BRIGHTNESS 194
GAUGING YOUR LEVEL OF MONITOR STRESS 195
COLOR YOUR (VIRTUAL) WORLD 198
AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER-RELATED RADIATION 200
SCALAR-WAVE ELF EMISSIONS 202
MEDICAL FOUNDATION FOR ELF SHIELDING 204
REDUCED EMISSIONS AND ENERGY SAVINGS 206
NOISE POLLUTION 208
MORE THAN YOU EVER WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT FLOPPY DISKS AND
FORMATTING 210
THE PURPOSE OF FORMATTING 211
THE FOUR COMMON IBM-COMPATIBLE DISK FORMATS 213
A LITTLE HISTORY 215
ABOUT SPECIAL FORMATS 219
TELLING THEM APART WITHOUT A PROGRAM 221
ABOUT DISK STRETCHING 223
A VERY STERN WARNING 225
THE PC OWNER'S SURVIVAL GUIDE PART 1: SERVICE AND SUPPORT226
A CONSUMER'S GUIDE TO AFTER-SALE SUPPORT 227
WHEN AND WHO TO CALL FOR HELP: A REFERENCE CARD FOR SERVICE AND
SUPPORT 228
COMPUTER SUPPORT: AN INTRODUCTION 229
COMPUTER SUPPORT: AN OVERVIEW 232
LET THE BUYER BEWARE 233
THE CRUNCH: WHAT IT COSTS 236
WHERE TO FIND THE RIGHT PEOPLE 241
WHAT YOU CAN AND CAN'T EXPECT FROM YOUR SUPPORT PROFESSIONAL243
THE 'LOCAL HERO' 249
BULLETIN BOARDS, INTERNET AND ONLINE SERVICES 251
VENDOR PRODUCT SUPPORT LINES 253
HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE VENDORS 254
PRIVATE TUTORS AND ON-SITE TROUBLESHOOTERS 255
CLASSROOM TRAINING 258
COMPUTER CLUBS AND SPECIAL INTEREST GROUPS 259
LEARNING TO BE A TEACHER: HOW TO BRING A NOVICE UP TO SPEED
PAINLESSLY 260
LEARNING TO BE A TEACHER 261
TWELVE TIPS FOR SMOOTHING OUT THE LEARNING CURVE 264
SO YOU WANT TO COMPUTERIZE YOUR SMALL BUSINESS... 267
THE PC OWNER'S SURVIVAL GUIDE 276
THE PC OWNER'S SURVIVAL GUIDE PART 2 SECTION 1: SYSTEM AND
SOFTWARE MAINTENANCE 277
DO-IT-YOURSELF HARDWARE MAINTENANCE 278
UPGRADES AND UPDATES 279
MAKING EMERGENCY START-UP BOOT DISKS (WINDOWS 3.1) 280
MAKING EMERGENCY START-UP BOOT DISKS (WINDOWS 95 282
CHECKING YOUR HARD DISK FOR ERRORS 284
CMOS DATA AND BATTERY REPLACEMENT 287
CLOCK BATTERIES: WHAT THEY ARE AND HOW TO REPLACE THEM290
DUST BUILDUP: WHAT TO DO...OR NOT DO 292
CHIP CREEP: WHEN OLD CHIPS DECIDE TO WALK AWAY 294
BASIC FLOPPY DRIVE MAINTENANCE 295
TAPE DRIVES, CDS AND BACKUP FLOPPIES 296
PRINTERS: EASY TO PLEASE 298
UPGRADING HOW-TO'S, WHEN-TO'S AND WHEN-NOT-TO'S 301
AN UPGRADING CHECKLIST 304
RIGHT COMPUTING FOR THE 1990S AND BEYOND 306
LEGAL ISSUES REGARDING SOFTWARE AND COPYRIGHTS 307
SOFTWARE PUBLISHING: MARKETING OR TRAFFICKING? 309
LETTING GO OF THE JONESES 310
RADIATION AND EMISSIONS PROTECTION 311
VISUAL STRESS REDUCTION 312
NOISE REDUCTION 313
GAS-OFF FROM NEW COMPUTERS 315
RANDOM JOTTINGS (MENU) 316
DOS 6.0'S BUGGY DISK COMPRESSION 316
CLEANING OUT THOSE USELESS FILES 317
HOW TO RECLAIM YOUR OWN TRASH 323
RECLAIMING DOS MEMORY 325
BETTER SOUND WITHOUT BETTER SPEAKERS 328
TWO TIMELESS WINDOWS TIPS 330
IF DOS WON'T VERIFY YOUR DATA, WHO WILL? 332
TRANSFERRING OLD DATA TO NEW COMPUTERS 334
SILENCE IS GOLDEN, NOT NECESSARILY DEADLY 336
SURGE PROTECTORS: NO BEST-BEFORE DATES HERE 338
DID YOU KNOW... 340
THE VIRUS AWARENESS KIT 341
FLAT TIRES AND BROKEN FANBELTS 342
HOW SAFE IS THE INTERNET? 344
TROJANS: A MUCH GREATER WORRY THAN VIRUSES 347
STEPS YOU CAN TAKE TO MINIMIZE THE RISK 348
A SEVEN-POINT BATTLE PLAN 349
ANTIVIRUS SOFTWARE AND BACKUPS 352
WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN ANTIVIRUS SOFTWARE 353
THREE FREE OR LOW-COST CHOICES FOR ANTIVIRUS SOFTWARE 355
THE IMPORTANCE OF BEING NEW AND IMPROVED 357
THE COMPUTER VIRUS MYTHS FILE 359
COMPUTER VIRUS MYTHS 359
VIRUSES HAVE BEEN DOCUMENTED ON OVER 300,000 COMPUTERS (1988)368
BBSS AND SHAREWARE PROGRAMS SPREAD VIRUSES 372
ROBERT MORRIS JR. RELEASED A BENIGN VIRUS ON A DEFENSE NETWORK.378
THE U.S. GOVERNMENT PLANTED A VIRUS IN IRAQI MILITARY COMPUTERS
DURING THE GULF WAR. 381
ABOUT THE AUTHORS 390
VIRUS MYTHS: DEFINITIONS 391
AMERICAN STANDARD CODE FOR INFORMATION INTERCHANGE (ASCII)400
ANONYMOUS FTP 401
ASHTON-TATE DBASE 402
BAUD 403
BOOKMARK 404
BROWSER 405
BYTE INFORMATION EXCHANGE (BIX) 406
CENTER FOR INNOVATIVE COMPUTER APPLICATIONS (CICA) 407
CLIENT 407
COMPUSERVE INFORMATION SYSTEMS 408
CRACKER 409
DATA COMPRESSION 410
DOWNLOAD 412
ELECTRONIC MAIL (EMAIL) 413
FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL (FTP) 414
GENIE 415
GIF 416
GZIP 417
HOST 418
INTERNET RELAY CHAT (IRC) 419
INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER 420
JPEG 421
LINK 422
LINUX 423
LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN) 424
MAILING LIST 425
MNP 426
MIRROR 427
MOSAIC 428
MULTIPURPOSE INTERNET MAIL EXTENSIONS (MIME) 429
NSA 430
NETSCAPE 430
NETWORK 431
ONLINE 432
ONLINE SERVICE 433
PAGE 434
PORT 435
PNG 436
POSTING 437
ROOT 438
SEARCH ENGINE 439
SHELL ACCOUNT 440
SIGNATURE 441
SIMTEL 442
SITE 443
LINE SURGE, SPIKE 444
SUN MICROSYSTEMS 445
SYSADMIN 446
SYSOP 447
TERMINAL 448
TERMINAL EMULATOR 449
UNIFORM RESOURCE LOCATOR 450
URBAN LEGEND 451
USENET 452
V.XX 452
WAREZ 454
WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW OR W3) 455
80X86 456
ADAPTER 460
ADOBE TYPE MANAGER (ATM) 461
ALGORITHM 462
AMIGA 463
ANALOG 464
ANNOTATION 465
APPLE COMPUTERS 466
APPLICATION 467
ARCHIVE BIT 468
ATARI 469
ATTRIBUTE 470
AUTOCAD, AUTODESK 471
AUTOEXEC 472
BACKUP 473
BIOS 474
BATCH 475
BATTERY (CMOS BATTERY) 476
BORLAND 477
BUG 478
BUNDLE 478
BYTE 479
CACHE 480
CARPAL TUNNEL SYNDROME (CTS) 481
CRT 482
CBM 483
CPU 484
CHIP 485
CHIPSET 486
CHKDSK.EXE 487
CLONE 488
CLUSTER 489
COLD BOOT 490
COMMODORE C-64 491
CD-ROM 492
CMOS 493
CGA 494
CONFIG.SYS 495
CONTROL PROGRAM FOR MICROCOMPUTERS (CP/M) 496
COPY PROTECTION 497
CRASH 498
CREATIVE LABS, INC. SOUND BLASTER 499
CRIPPLEWARE 500
CURSOR 500
CYLINDER 501
DATABASE 502
DEBUG 503
DEFRAGMENT 504
DESKTOP 505
DESKTOP PUBLISHING (DTP) 506
DEVICE DRIVER 507
DIGITAL 508
DOS 509
DMF 510
DOOM, WOLFENSTEIN 511
DOT MATRIX PRINTER 512
DOT PITCH 513
DOUBLE-DENSITY 514
DR-DOS 515
DIF 516
EMULATOR, EMULATION 517
END USER 518
EGA 519
ERGONOMICS 520
EXPANDED MEMORY (EMS) 521
EXTENDED GRAPHICS ARRAY (XGA) 522
EXTENSION 522
EXTRACT 523
ELF 524
FACSIMILE (FAX) 525
FILE 526
FLICKER 527
FONT 528
FRONT END 529
GLITCH 530
HACK 531
HARD DISK 532
HEAT SINK 533
HP 534
HGC 535
HOME PAGE 536
HOTSPOT 537
HUE, SHADE, TONE 538
HTTP 539
IBM 540
IBM-COMPATIBLE 541
ICON 542
IMPORT 543
INKJET (BUBBLEJET) 544
INTEGRATE 544
INTEL 545
INTERACTIVE 546
INTERFACE 547
INTERLACING 548
JAGGIES 549
JOYSTICK 550
JUMPER (SHUNT) 551
LAPTOP, NOTEBOOK, SUBNOTEBOOK 552
LASER PRINTER 553
LAUNCH 554
LHA 555
LICENSE 556
LED 557
LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD) 558
LOTUS 559
APPLE MACINTOSH 560
MAINFRAME 561
MB 562
MHZ 563
MEMORY 564
MICROPROCESSOR 565
MS 566
MODE 566
MONOCHROME 567
MOTHERBOARD 568
MOTION PICTURES EXPERTS GROUP (MPEG) 569
NORTON, PETER NORTON 570
NOVELL, NOVELL NETWARE 571
NULL MODEM CABLE, NULLMODEM 572
O/S 573
OS/2 574
OVERLAY 575
PACK, UNPACK 576
PARAMETER 577
PASTE 578
PATCH 579
PATH TYPES 580
PROFESSIONAL GRAPHICS ADAPTER,PIN GRID ARRAY 582
PIRACY 583
PIXEL 584
PKZIP 585
PROGRAM 586
PD 587
RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM) 588
README 589
REPETITIVE STRAIN INJURY (RSI) 589
RESOLUTION 590
ROUTINE 591
SCREEN SAVER, SCREEN BLANKER 592
SCRIPT 593
SECTOR 594
SELF-EXTRACTING ARCHIVE (SFX) 595
SHAREWARE 596
SPREADSHEET 597
STACKER 598
SUPER VGA (SVGA) 599
SYSTEM CLOCK 600
SYSTEM.DAT, USER.DAT 601
TAPE BACKUP UNIT 602
TASK 603
TASK SWITCHING 604
TERMINATE-STAY RESIDENT (TSR) 605
TEXT EDITOR 606
TEXT FILE, ASCII FILE 607
TRACKBALL 608
TROJAN HORSE 609
UPGRADE, UPDATE 610
US ROBOTICS 611
UTILITY 611
UUCODE 612
VERSION, REVISION 613
VGA 614
VAX 615
VISICALC 616
WARM BOOT 617
WIZARD 618
WORDPERFECT 619
WORD PROCESSING 620
WORD PROCESSOR 621
WORKSTATION 622
WRITE-PROTECT 623
XBASE 624
ESSENTIAL COMPUTING TERMS AND DEFINITIONS 625
WHAT ARE BITS, BYTES, KILOBYTES AND MEGABYTES? 627
WHAT IS MEMORY...EXACTLY? 630
WHAT'S THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A HARD DISK AND A FLOPPY DISK?633
WHAT ARE FORMAT AND FORMATTING? 636
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOFTWARE AND PROGRAMS? 639
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DOS AND WINDOWS? 642
WHAT'S THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FILES AND DIRECTORIES? 647
WHAT IS A SHELL? 651
WHAT IS A PATH? 653
WHAT ARE ZIP AND ARCHIVE FILES? 658
INSTALL, UNINSTALL SETUP, AND CONFIGURE 661
WHAT'S A PROMPT? 662
WHAT'S A BOOT? 666
WHAT IS A MODEM? 669
WHAT IS UNIX? 672
WHAT IS A BBS (BULLETIN BOARD SYSTEM)? 674
WHAT ARE VIRUSES AND TROJAN HORSES? 678
WHAT IS A HACKER? 681
WHAT ARE SIGS? 683
Survival Guide information center
This is by no means a definitive guide to working with your PC.
Instead it's designed to fill the holes left by the manuals, help
and advice you get from other sources and represents what we
discovered most novice to intermediate-level users wanted to know
about their computers. Please keep that in mind...it's a
supplement to, not a replacement for, your usual sources of
information on computer-related subjects.
Tips for making the most of the guide
A note to Windows Help authors
Who wrote this?
"How did you do that?"
Licensing and copyright information
Except where noted this work is the copyrighted property of
Dynamic Living Media. (Portions copyright 1996 Paul Arnote;
1994,1995 Blue Sky Software Corporation; LHA 1992 Yoshi.)
First-person ("I", "me") statements contained in the text are the
opinions of Cub Lea <[log in to unmask]>, one of the authors of
this work, whose collected reports come under the Dynamic Living
Media umbrella. "We" statements reflect the editorial consensus
of Dynamic Living Media.
Tips for using PC Owner's Survival Guide
Hidden hotspots
The first feature is provided to help you make sense of what
you're doing. PC Owner's Survival Guide is sprinkled with
thousands of "hidden hotspots", words you may not fully
understand which are important to understanding Internet and
computing. Hold your mouse cursor over any word you don't
understand or want clarified and if it turns into a pointing
finger, clicking the word will pop up its definition. Try
clicking the word "hotspot" anywhere you see it in this paragraph
to see how this works.
The Find button
This special feature, activated by the button on the button bar,
lets you track down any word or phrase in the Guide in a matter
of seconds, but it does have one small bug. If you have used the
Supplementary Help Window or the Navigator window, the Find
function stops working. You can re-enable it by closing the
guide and clicking Find again. This feature also lets you print
multiple topics in one pass and also copy information to the
clipboard for pasting into other documents. (Please respect
copyrights when doing this.)
Right-click mouse menus
The second is that the guide includes a right-click pop-up menu
designed to take you to each of its main section indices. To see
this menu now, click the right mouse button over the white
section of this window. (Unfortunately, due to limitations in
Windows Help we were unable to expand these menus to include the
sub-menus for each section.
The Survival Guide Navigator
Use the Navigator window for a complete on-demand menu of
everything in the guide. This button opens it from here, and you
can also open it by clicking the Map button on the button bar.
Bookmarks and annotations
The third feature you'll find handy is bookmarking. You can
maintain a set of bookmarks for the Guide which will quickly take
you to any topic or submenu you like at the click of a menu item.
Try it...it will make finding a lot of useful points much easier
once you begin to work seriously with the Internet.
Take notes!
That's what the Notes button on your button bar is for. A few
judicious notes can go a long way toward making life as a
first-time Internet traveller a lot easier. Only people with
photographic memories are likely to remember everything they want
to remember. Unlike annotations, which work only for one topic
at a time, this feature will allow you to collect your notes for
all topics in the guide in a handy, single file.
Keep an eye on our Web site!
http://www.firstrain.com
Okay, so it's a plug, not a tip.
Extension software
Some or all of the following Windows Help extension libraries and
miscellaneous utilities may have been utilized in enhancing the
look, feel and functionality of PC Owner's Survival Guide. Check
your installation directory to determine which of these files
were used. Note: The publisher reserves the right to alter this
list without notice.
WINSIZE2.DLL and HLPUTIL2.DLL are copyright 1995 SINFIC SA.
EW256BMP.DLL is copyright 1994 Paul Arnote.
HLP_CTRL.DLL by Andrew Brundell is copyright 1995 Ninth Wave
Software.
HYPRFIND.DLL is copyright 1995 Blue Sky Software.
WH3DV2.DLL is copyright 1995 Tom Gibson.
EPONCE.DLL is copyright 1994 Dr. Jim Methven.
WINSIZE2.DLL, HLP_CTRL.DLL, WH3DV2.DLL, WHPLUS.DLL and EPONCE.DLL
are all freeware, but the files in this package may not be
redistributed separately from this package due to copying
restrictions imposed by several of the copyright holders.
See the documentation NOTEBOOK.WRI for information regarding
Gregg Braun's NOTEBOOK.EXE. It is freely distributable with
other projects.
Copyright 1996 Dynamic Living Media(Portions copyright 1996
Paul Arnote; 1994,1995 Blue Sky Software Corporation; LHA 1992
Yoshi)Design, construction and authoring: Dynamic Living Media
Project coordinator: Cub Lea
Distributed by: Dynamic Living Media and Oasis Systems, Inc.
Email: [log in to unmask], [log in to unmask]
Licensing information: [log in to unmask], (604)240-0506Support
site: http://www.firstrain.com
Licensing information
Microsoft Windows and Windows 95 are registered trademarks of
Microsoft Corporation. Dynamic Living Media is not affiliated in
any way with Microsoft Corporation except as licensees and users
of their products. First Train for the Internet, Easy Windows 95
Internet Step-up, The PC Owner's Survival Guide, F-A-S-T
Emergency Windows Backup, Winsock Conflict Eraser and PC/Internet
Lexicon are copyright 1996 Dynamic Living Media. All files with
.HLP extensions included in this archive are the copyrighted
property of Dynamic Living Media except where noted or
accredited. Many of the DLLs and extensions used in this package
are freely distributable; some are not.
IMPORTANT NOTE: If you do not agree to the terms of this
license, do not use this software.
Information about the Windows Help extensions used in
this product can be viewed at the topic linked to this help
button.
Terms of your software license:
(Legalese with English subtitles; click the BACK or CONTENTS
button when you've had enough)
1. This license is limited to the terms and conditions
described herein. Its permissions extend for the life of the
copyright holding to the work licensed. Its prohibitions and
restrictions extend for the life of the copyrighted work or two
years following the release date of the software, whichever comes
first, except where noted.
Plain English
2. As a paid user you are permitted to install and use this
file and all files accompanying it in the package or electronic
datafile in which it was found, henceforth known as "software",
for personal use on a single computer and to make one (1) copy of
the distribution disks and two (2) copies of
electronically-distributed software for archival backup only. If
two copies of the original software exist in your possession, at
least one copy must be stored a minimum of one hundred meters
from both the original and the first copy.
Plain English
3. If you are not a paid, licensed user of this software, or
you do not possess written permission for limited or unlimited
personal use of this software without payment, or you are in
possession of a copy of this software which has not been
purchased through an authorized Dynamic Living Media distributor,
retailer or company representative, then your possession of this
document or any part of it is in violation of copyright. You
must erase this software and all copies of it in your possession
from your computer immediately. Distribution of the software in
this package, except where explicitly stated in the software
itself, without the expressed written consent of Dynamic Living
Media is strictly prohibited and will be enforced. Any act which
consists of making this software publicly available via exchange
of data in physical or electronic form may constitute criminal
fraud.
Plain English
4. No time limits are applied to the use of the software on
the disks supplied with
your installation package except where noted in the documentation
itself such as a disk labelled "freely copyable and shareable" or
documentation which may have accompanied the software, such as a
media review release, non-fee usage release for a non-profit
organization authorized by Dynamic Living Media for no-cost use
of the software, or other similar materials which may have been
supplied with the package whether distributed in physical or
electronic form.
Plain English
5. All benefits, restrictions and prohibitions outlined in
the license are transferrable. The copyright holder reserves the
right to deny transfer of license for any reason.
Plain English
6. All restrictions on copying and distribution of the
software become null and void two (2) years or seven-hundred
thirty (730) days after the release date, at which time all
software whose release date is greater than two (2) years old may
be freely distributed under the terms of the copyright. At this
time acceptable shareware distribution principles are in effect;
i.e. the software may not be sold but a fee may be charged to
cover the cost of the media upon which it is distributed. This
condition applies to all software bearing the Dynamic Living
Media copyright, either visibly or encoded as part of a binary
file. Disassembly of this software following the aforementioned
period is acceptable but this applies exclusively to components
of the software bearing the Dynamic Living Media copyright and
not to any other parts of the software. Right of disassembly for
purposes of study are granted exclusively by the copyright
holder. All such requests must be made directly to the copyright
holder. Copyright laws regarding the content of the software
remain in effect even after the expiry of distribution
restrictions.
Plain English
7. WARRANTY: The software is provided as operational and
usable within the parameters described in the packaging, either
electronic or physical, and requirements on all systems which
fall within the standards listed on the package. Neither Dynamic
Living Media nor its agents or distributors shall be liable or
responsible for the failure of this product to perform as
advertised on equipment which does not strictly meet the criteria
described on the package. Distribution disks, tapes, cartridges
and electronic archives are warranted against failure for a
period of 30 days and in the case of physical media may be
returned for repair or replacement before that period without
charge. Under no circumstances shall Dynamic Living Media, its
agents or distributors be responsible for any inability to use
this product as advertised due to nonstandard software or
hardware configurations including but not limited to third-party
menuing systems, system software and hardware. If one or more of
the disks in the set is faulty, or refuses to install within 30
days, it/they may be returned to Dynamic Living Media for
replacement. Dynamic Living warrants only the integrity of
software archives maintained on its own storage systems or the
systems maintained by its agent(s) for the purpose of direct
distribution, i.e. Dynamic Living's Internet provider(s) and/or
online service provider(s).
Plain English
8. LIMITATION OF LIABILITY: Under no circumstances and
under no legal theory, tort, contract, or otherwise, shall
Dynamic Living Media be liable to the end user or any other
person for any indirect, special, incidental, or consequential
damages of any type including, without limitation, damages for
loss of goodwill, lost productivity,
computer failure or malfunction, or any and all other commercial
damages or losses which are not directly due to negligence or
malice on the part of Dynamic Living Media as covered by legal
definitions of reasonable care. This limitation of liability
shall not apply to liability for death or personal injury to the
extent applicable law prohibits such limitation. Some
jurisdictions do not allow the exclusion or limitation of
incidental or consequential damages, so this limitation and
exclusion may not apply to all users.
Plain English
Your rights to use the software itself never expire, and the do's
and don'ts relating to copyright law will be in effect for
decades to come...except for your right to share the software
with others, which you may do two years after this software's
release date. "Software package" means this helpfile
specifically and all files except for any free or freely copyable
programs included as part of this package. Just be aware that
even the freely copyable parts of the package are protected by
copyright and can't be sold or claimed as the work of anyone but
us.
As a matter of policy, Dynamic Living Media downgrades all
software labelled "commercial", "retail" or "shareware" to
freeware after two years. Check the dates on the files in this
program's directory if you're not sure.
This might sound strange. The first part is fairly standard
stuff...you can make as many as two backup copies of the software
if you like, but you might be confused by our second condition
here.
Think of it this way. If your home burns down, or your computer
is stolen, and your only backup copy was sitting next to your
computer, you are truly out of luck. Store at least one of your
backups far enough away from the original so that it can't be
lost in the same disaster that results in the loss of your
computer.
We know we can't stop you from making copies for friends, posting
it on pirate bulletin boards or otherwise playing it fast and
loose with our work. But if we catch you trying to make money
doing so, or acting in a way which deprives us of our right to do
business, such as distributing the software on the Internet,
you'd better believe we'll come after you.
Also, if you are a member of a non-profit organization involved
in relief work or a registered public charity doing work related
to assisting the disadvantaged, contact us about receiving
licenses for free use of this software for purposes relating to
your efforts.
Your right to use the materials you got with this help kit, and
that you will get in future from us via email or FTP, never
expire. If you're a reviewer or are evaluating the software for
purchase as part of your job or position with an organization or
agency, you may be required to destroy your copy(ies) of the
software after a given period of time.
This is part of our commercial license. Don't worry about it.
We at Dynamic Living believe that freedom of information is more
than just a right. It's a principle. All Dynamic Living Media
information products become free software two years after the
release date. (The release date for Dynamic Living Media
products is the same as the date on the files themselves.)
We encourage all publishers to adopt similar free-distribution
clauses for their outdated software so that the gap between
"information haves" and "information have-nots" can be reduced.
Let's face it...after two years on the market, a publisher isn't
going to make much money on an old version of the software
anyway.
If your disks fail when you try to install them, get in touch
with us. If you can contact us by email we can often help you
get a new copy of the software via the Internet or an online
service in less time than it would take to mail you a
replacement.
If the failure is not due to a problem which we can control, we
can't be responsible for it.
And if you do not have a properly functioning, 100-percent
industry standard IBM-compatible computer with a
properly-functioning Microsoft Windows 3.1/3.11 or Windows 95
operating system for which you have a legal license, we can't be
responsible for that either.
If you do have this software and there are conflicts with other
programs that prevent you from using this software, we can't be
responsible for that either, although we will usually do our best
to insure compatibility if a conflict arises between our software
and another widely-used program.
If it's our fault, we'll do everything in our power to fix it.
If it's not our fault, well, we need this disclaimer to protect
ourselves against people who enjoy frivolous lawsuits.
A note to help authors
"How did you do that?"
Please don't write to ask this. We have no intention of sharing
our secrets via email. Instead we encourage you to find out for
yourself, and there's a fairly easy way to do this.
There is now an excellent free decompiler available which
will convert Windows Help binaries to RTF formatted text and
extract all bitmaps and baggage, and even write a project file.
If you decompile this software you'll learn precisely how we did
our stuff, what DLLs we used, and if you care to spend a few
hours FTPing, we'll even tell you where to get the tools.
The two FTP sites we relied upon most for developing this
software were ftp.onyxgfx.com/pub/winhelp and
ftp.gmu.edu/pub/winhelp. If your FTP client doesn't like these
URLs, try them in your browser. The decompiler was most recently
filenamed HELPDC13.ZIP.
"How can I do that?"
Just follow our examples. Anything more than that would be
spoonfeeding. We do remind you that this material is
copyrighted, although many of the DLLs we used are freeware.
"Why are you doing this?
If you had gone through half of the heartache we experienced when
developing this software, you'd probably feel the same way.
Damned if we'll watch anyone go through that kind of pain and
frustration if we can help it.
Besides, they call it winhelp, not winhoard, and we had a
lot of assistance from other Winhelp authors in developing and
fine-tuning this project.
Data compression has always been one of those mysteries reserved
for the Grand Mystics of computerdom. The guys who operated the
big corporate mainframe systems knew about it, used it, even
worshipped it. But getting an explanation a layman could
understand was tougher than finding a third-grade primer on
nuclear physics.
Hackers tortured hundreds of thousands of PC users with
terms like archive extraction and recursively-collected
subdirectories, and left supposedly useful files on systems with
extensions like .ARC and .ZIP that most people never even learned
how to use.
Data compression technology (or, to be more specific,
compression programming, since compression is performed by
software, not hardware, although hardware can be used in the
compression process...confused yet?) has been one of the great
boons to computerdom at virtually every level. It's in everyday
use by everyone from the home hobby user to the massive
government and corporate databases.
Several kinds of savings
It saves time, because it takes time to transmit large amounts of
data over the typically slow communications channels in use
today. It saves space because uncompressed data needs
considerably more storage space than compressed data.
But most importantly it saves money, because disk storage
costs money. Compression is, very simply, a means of storing
more data in less disk space. Whether compression actually saves
space at this time really isn't important. How many people do
you know with hard disks and floppy disk collections so large in
physical size that they need compressing?
Used in every aspect of computing today
Data compression is used today in virtually every aspect of
computing. That RLE graphics file which graces your Windows
startup screen is compressed. If it wasn't, it might take up
50,000 bytes instead of the 25,000 bytes it occupies on your disk
now. If you use a 14.4kbaud modem, your data is probably being
compressed by your modem and decompressed at the other end to
save time in transmission. If you have DOS 6.0 or higher on your
system, chances are you're using DoubleSpace to increase your
hard disk capacity. DoubleSpace is a form of data compression
designed to compress an entire hard disk. And if you have a
shareware CD-ROM or get new programs from bulletin boards or
online services, you're probably acquainted with those pesky
files with .ZIP extensions. These .ZIP files usually contain
several files in a compressed form, condensed into a single file
to simplify storage.
A compression and archiving lexicon
There are a few basic terms that almost every user will benefit
from knowing when it comes to working with even the simplest file
compression software. Here are the most important:
Archive
An archive, when speaking of compressed files, usually
refers to the file which is created by the compression software
after it has processed your data. A .ZIP file might be referred
to as a .ZIP archive, or just an archive. It's not necessarily a
true archive though, because in most cases a real, live archive
file has had a specific bit of data altered so that the system
software knows a backup copy has been made.
Compress
To shrink in size without reducing value. Simple enough.
Extract, Expand or Decompress
What you have to do to get usable data from a compressed
archive file. In most cases, the same piece of software can be
used for adding files to a compressed archive and extracting one
or more files from that archive. Not so with PKZIP, which uses
two separate programs for the job, a decision by Phil Katz that
actually makes life easier for the average user.
You usually create an archive file by adding files to a new
compressed file whose name you specify when you run the software.
This data isn't normally usable again until you extract files
from the archive. Usually you extract all of the files in the
archive, but if you use compression software to create archival
backups of your data, extraction can be used to restore single
files from the archive.
Unlike most forms of data compression, archiving file
compression software doesn't change a thing about your original
files unless you tell it to. When you add files to an archive,
your original files remain just as they were. And when you
extract them from an archive, the archived file will usually
still contain a compressed copy of the data.
PKUNZIP.EXE (or PKUNZJR.COM)
One of two programs which were mandatory until just a
couple of years ago for handling ZIP archives. These programs
were two of very few programs capable of extracting files from
the tens of millions of publicly-available archives with .ZIP
extensions (i.e. files with .ZIP at the end of the name, such as
MYFILES.ZIP). The latest version as of December, 1995 was 2.04g,
and if you work with DOS you'll need this newer version to handle
most of the .ZIP files floating around today.
If you're not sure you have the right version of
PKUNZIP.EXE, the unfortunate part is that you can't find out the
version number by running it, and its date stamp may also be
unreliable. You'll have to check the file's size. Version
2.04gof PKUNZIP.EXE is 28,806 bytes long.
Fortunately, if you have Windows there are dozens of
programs available for handling ZIP archives, including the
StuffIt Expander program featured in First Train for the
Internet.
By the way, if all you have is PKUNZIP.EXE, you don't have a
full version of the software. PKWARE Inc. has decreed that
everyone who receives PKZIP software should have the full version
of the software, which comes in a compressed archive file called
PKZ204G.EXE. This package includes tools for creating ZIPs as
well, and a useful utility for fixing damaged and
distorted-but-healthy ZIP
archives, both of which are near-necessities for anyone with the
smallest drop of hacker blood in them.
You'll find links where you can obtain the full PKZ204G.EXE
(or a newer version if it exists) on the Software Resources Page
where you can obtain this package now. It's free for personal
use -- you only need to purchase a license for commercial use --
so why not take advantage?
Syntax
Every file compression program seems to have its own
syntax, or dialect if you like. Some attempts have been made at
standardizing the syntax, but this standardization has been
voluntary, and if the author of the software decides not to go
along with the norm, there's not much we as users can do about
it. Knowledge of syntax is necessary for the use of virtually
every compression/decompression program around unless you use a
shell program to handle archives.
And if you are a novice user, it is strongly suggested that
you find and use one of the many DOS or Windows shareware and
freeware shells. It's much easier to be prompted by a shell that
says What do you want to add to the .ZIP file? than it is to
remember that the .ZIP file comes before the source files and
that hyphens are needed for this program and -d doesn't have the
same meaning here as it did there. These shell programs take the
memory work out of managing compressed archive files and are a
must for virtually anyone in their first year or two of
computing.
Hard Disk Compression
More space...but at a price
The most commonly used form of compression on the PC, at least
until the Internet started changing everyone's notions of how
software can be delivered, was probably hard disk compression.
Millions of people are now using DoubleSpace (now known as
DriveSpace). Less common is a program called Stacker, which
predated DoubleSpace by several years.
Microsoft made DoubleSpace part of the DOS 6.0 package,
effectively giving access to low-cost disk compression to
everyone. The folks who make Stacker had almost cornered the
market before DoubleSpace came along, and even manufactured
hardware add-on boards to compress and decompress data even
faster and with less memory.
In theory it's an excellent idea...twice the hard disk space
almost instantly. In practice many people who compress their
hard disks later wish they hadn't.
How it works
These programs load a small sub-program into your system at
boot-up that intercepts every byte of data going to and coming
from your hard disk. When you save a file to disk, it takes that
file and performs some fancy encoding on it. When it's done, the
rewritten file is useless to your system but still perfectly
understandable to your compression program, and it takes up an
average of 40 to 55 percent less space. When the file is read
back into memory again, the disk compressor's sub-program grabs
the data before the program can get to it and expands it to
normal size so it's understandable to the program. It's a
wonderful way to turn a 500-megabyte hard disk into a
900-megabyte hard disk in just a couple of hours.
The downside
The problems are obvious to serious users almost instantly. The
first noticeable change to your system is dependence upon yet
another piece of software that could, theoretically, cost you
every byte of data on your system if the software fails. You
must always have that encoding/decoding software in your system
or you'll never be able to properly access the data. It's the
same with most forms of compression. You need the secret decoder
ring, the sub-program that compresses and decompresses, to
translate the data. Without it, all you have is gibberish.
Then there's the problem of having a piece of software
process every bit of data on your system going to and from the
hard disk. Keep in mind that data compression and decompression
take system time, and that disk read and write is the biggest
speed bottleneck on every computer...next to the modem of course.
Suddenly everything on the system is slowed by the amount of time
taken to compress and decompress the data.
The third problem is the increased risk of data loss.
Computers are and probably will continue to be as imperfect as
the people who build and program them. Any extra processing of
data adds to the insecurity of the resulting data, and disk
compression is one huge layer of processing.
Add it all up and chances are that you'll meet just as many
people who were thrilled to get rid of their disk compression as
you will people who were happy to have it.
Still using DOS 6.0 DoubleSpace? Get it fixed NOW!
Just a note to anyone who might still be using DOS 6.0's
DoubleSpace: beg, borrow or steal a DOS 6.22 upgrade disk
immediately if you haven't already done so. A large number of
users reported all kinds of data problems with the original
version of DoubleSpace, problems which were fixed with the MS-DOS
6.22 upgrade. If you have MS-DOS 6.0 on your system, you can
purchase the upgrade disk from most dealers for as little as
$10.00.)
What's coming
Windows 95 promises some exciting changes to the old notions of
how disk compression software should work. As of late 1995 there
was a new type of disk compression called ZipStream available for
the IBM-compatible which compressed a single file at a time,
allowing for much smoother and quicker operation. Most current
users of disk compression software are less than pleased by the
performance of their systems once the software is installed, and
understandably frightened by the way these compressors compress
everything into one block of data, making the whole system that
much more vulnerable to data loss.
There's no two ways about it...even with hard disk space
dropping below 25 cents per megabyte there is still a market for
disk compression.
Data transmission compression
Used by everyone
Every consumer-level modem sold these days comes with data
compression software built right into it. This compression
programming is designed to reduce the cost of telecommunications
by reducing the time it takes for data to pass over phone lines
or microwave signals.
The most common type of data compression today is known as
v.42bis. (There is also a v.32bis, but this is a scheme for
allowing a modem to send and receive data at the same time. It's
a timesaver in a lot of cases but not exactly a data compression
scheme.) The old standard was known as MNP (Microcom Networking
Protocol), and virtually every modem includes MNP-5 somewhere in
its hardware.
US Robotics, makers of perhaps the most popular and
best-loved modems in North America, used their own special
compression scheme called HST (stands for High-Speed
Transmission) for several years. While v.42 is part of almost
every modem, including the USR's, HST can only be used when one
USR modem is talking to another USR modem.
A noticeable improvement
If you've ever dialed up a bulletin board and waited for screens
of information to be drawn on your computer, you can understand
the value of compressing data for transmission. Long-distance
modemers in particular appreciate this feature of modern modems.
It can cut the time it takes for a screen to be drawn on your
monitor by as much as 75 percent, but if you're downloading data
in the form of .ZIP files or other compressed files, it seems the
best these schemes can achieve at this time is about a fifteen
percent increase in speed. But every penny counts when you're
dialing a "pay-for-play" BBS or online service such as GEnie or
CompuServe.
Graphic Compression
A picture is worth a tenth of its space
If you have explored Windows at any depth and enjoy computer
graphics, chances are you have been introduced to the .GIF or
.JPG file. The compression formats used on these files are
specifically designed for graphics for reasons which will be
explained a little later. The more efficient that computer
monitors become at displaying smaller pixels and larger numbers
of colors, the more vital this form of data compression has
become. And with the explosion of the Internet and the need for
transmission of large amounts of graphics data in the shortest
possible time, the ability to reduce the size of graphics files
to as little as 1/10th to 1/20th their original size has become
critical.
Both .GIF and .JPG files, the types most commonly used on
the Internet's World Wide Web, are forms of compressed graphic
data. But this type of compression is different from most
others. It's known as lossy compression, as compared to most
other types which are termed lossless.
You win a lot, you lose a little
DoubleSpace and v.32 won't change a single byte of your data when
they compress it. But when you create a .GIF file, you actually
lose data which you can never recover. This is because .GIF
processing software looks at the graphics files and sacrifices
data in non-critical areas on the assumption that the viewer will
never miss the lost data. Purists despise this aspect of the GIF
format, because it can visibly affect the quality of the image.
JPEG, the software which creates .JPG files, performs similar
trickery. Most other types of compression could never get away
with this sort of corner-cutting without destroying the data
completely.
There are many formats for graphics compression. AutoCAD
has its own format (.DXF). Designers of paint programs all seem
have their own formats. Some are lossy and some are lossless.
Which you prefer depends on the sharpness of your esthetic sense
and the amount of room you have on your hard disk. Lossless
compression always results in much larger graphics files, and for
now at least the standards are GIF and JPEG.
What's ahead
We expect PNG (Portable Network Graphics) to become the new
standard on the World Wide Web by 1997. This is because
CompuServe owns the copyright on the GIF file format and has
demanded royalties be paid by all commercial users of this type
of graphics compression. JPEG faces a similar dilemma. PNG, a
format available free to all, creates somewhat larger files than
GIF, but the fact that it can be used royalty-free is bound to
make it popular with businesses and software developers, and like
it or not, they control what we eventually use.
File Compression
Where the mud is deepest
This is the type of data compression that gives novice users the
biggest headaches. File compression is one of the most confusing
topics then novice computer user is likely to face, and also one
of the most useful. File compression software, or archiving
software, is something which until very recently almost everyone
had to learn from the ground up. Skills learned with other types
of programs were generally not too helpful when it comes to
understanding file compression software.
As if things weren't confusing enough, there isn't even one
standard type of file compression. There are several types which
are popular and dozens more which aren't used very often. It
sometimes seems like every developer who wants to save space in
their software invents a new compression scheme to do it.
PKZIP: the only format you really need to understand
Fortunately the average user probably only needs to know how to
handle two or three of them, and the main program almost everyone
needed to learn -- again until just recently -- is PKWARE's
extremely popular PKZIP. If (better make that when) you add a
CD-ROM drive to your system you'll probably wind up with one or
more "shareware" CDs. The files on most shareware disks are
compressed with PKZIP. If you don't know what PKZIP does and how
to handle these files, you're bound to run into problems at some
point.
Almost every Windows Internet user eventually discovers that
the overwhelming majority of IBM-compatible software is
transferable to your computer only as a PKZIP-compressed archive.
If you don't understand the basic principles of this software,
you're like a kid in a candy store...a kid with a sugar allergy.
All of these goodies and none to eat.
PKZIP.EXE is perhaps the most common program in all of
computerdom, and by far the most popular of the file compression
programs. It is faster than any other popular compressor,
creates files as small or smaller, and it's also the easiest for
the average user to learn.
Data conservation: the top priority
What PKZIP and related programs do is take whole groups of files
and perform an encoding operation on them, just as all the other
types of compressors do, but in the case of file compression for
archiving, smaller size is more important than speed of
extraction. Most of the better file compression programs perform
one encoding operation, then encode the data a second time using
a different formula to make the file even smaller.
This means it takes longer to compress and expand data this
way than any other, but it also means that the files created take
up less space. Sad to say, this multiple-algorithm compression
process usually doesn't result in more than a ten to fifteen
percent reduction in size over the much faster methods used by
programs such as Stacker and DoubleSpace.
On average, PKZIP will shrink a group of files so that, in
their compressed form, they take up an average of only about 40
to 45 percent of the disk space they needed when uncompressed.
Until the most recent version of PKZIP (version 2.04g was
released in 1993 and
version 3.0 is expected early in 1996), two programs called LHArc
and ARJ created smaller files at just about the same speed as the
old PKZIP. PKZIP Version 2.04g is about 30 percent faster on
average than LHArc and ARJ, and creates files five to ten percent
smaller. Needless to say, LHArc and ARJ fell out of popular use
very quickly in 1994 although you'll still see them in use
occasionally. PKZIP is the standard, and until someone comes up
with something better, it's the one we'll all be using most.
Executable Compression
All the best runners are lean
It wouldn't be fair to end this section without discussing a more
specialized form of file compression software. This software is
designed specifically for shrinking the size of executable or
"runnable" files, the actual programs used by DOS and Windows.
These programs are sometimes limited to compressing only .EXE or
.COM files, and most of them function in DOS only. There's not
much in the way of .BAT file compression...and not much needed
when you consider that the average .BAT file is under a hundred
bytes in length. Windows executable compression exists, but it
has proven to be somewhat buggy and is not widely used.
This software is unique because it takes an .EXE or .COM
file and compresses it without changing its ability to run as a
program. It's like ZIP-ing your programs (or LZHing or ARJing
them). It seems like everyone who writes compression software
has created a companion program for packing executables at some
time or another. There are more than a dozen in circulation for
DOS executables as public domain, free software or shareware.
Good news and bad news
This form of compression has two drawbacks. It saves space and
uses a lightning-fast decompression program tacked onto the end
of the compressed original program so you don't wait more than a
split-second for it to expand itself into memory. But it can't
be used with all types of programs. Some programs have data
segments inside them called overlays. Windows programs use
overlays by the ton.
The DOS rules say you shouldn't put overlays in the program
itself (Windows makes these overlays almost a necessity), but a
lot of programmers ignored that rule or worked around it. When
you try to compress an overlay you very often get bad results
when running the program, but not always.
If you like the notion of using this type of compression,
experiment to see which programs will compress without harm and
which won't. The most popular is another PKWARE product:
PKLITE.EXE, and literally hundreds of developers have purchased
licenses for PKLITE to compress executable programs for their
software packages.
The payoff: more disk space at (usually) no cost
Executable compression, also known as program packing, was used
to save hard disk and floppy disk space when disk compression
such as Stacker and DriveSpace was rare or expensive. Stacker --
the most common disk compression software in the world before DOS
6.0's DoubleSpace -- cost more to purchase than the whole DOS 6.0
package, so not everyone could take advantage of its benefits.
Program packing worked wonderfully well on 286 and 386-class
machines, but (and here's the second drawback) older XTs and
especially PCs produced noticeable delays when they tried to run
packed programs of any size. It might not seem like much to you,
but a lot of users found that waiting several seconds, or even
just a second or two, for a program to unpack itself when it was
run was an intolerable situation. Fortunately, these delays on
even the largest programs are almost unnoticeable on anything
faster than a 386 running at 16MHz. Every program packer is
written as much for raw speed as compression efficiency.
Even Microsoft believed in it
Until they finally broke down and purchased a license from PKWARE
for the PKLITE executable compressor for MS-DOS 6.0, Microsoft
packed their own programs using something called EXEPACK. If you
examine many of the DOS utilities of 20,000 bytes or more from
MS-DOS 5.0, you'll see "EXEPACK" written right into the code near
the start of the program. EXEPACK was fast but not very
efficient.
Unfortunately for those with 286's or slower, these programs
can't be unpacked without special software. PKLITE is blazingly
fast in decompressing, but the delay is still noticeable on
slower machines. And when DoubleSpace is used on an AT, XT or
PC-class machine, the user is faced with two decompression
delays...one for DoubleSpace and one for PKLITE. Strange when
you consider that with DoubleSpace installed, there's very little
advantage in using PKLITE to compress the file an extra few dozen
bytes or so.
Not much for Windows...yet
As mentioned previously, there's not much in the way of
executable compression for Windows just yet, and there may never
be. Windows 95's new method of operation may allow for whole new
types of disk compression which will make any kind of compression
that only works on executables both cumbersome and pointless.
Using Data Compression Software
Your servant behind the scenes
The nicest thing about most data compression software is that you
rarely have to think about it or learn how to use it.
Compression schemes like GIF and JPEG are just "there", and the
software designed to handle these files also handles the
compression without your help. Backup software usually gives you
the option of compressing your data. Once you give the okay you
never need to know anything more about the compression. Data
compression in modems is handled by software built into the
modem's chips. Once you flick the ON switch on your modem,
everything is taken care of for you. And with disk compression
software like DriveSpace, once it's installed you never have to
worry about it again (cross your fingers).
Until recently the one type of software you did need to
learn was file compression, or archiving software, such as PKZIP.
It will take a few years yet before everything on the
IBM-compatible has the ease of use and graphic simplicity that
the Macintosh's Compact Pro possesses. In the meantime, there
are some useful programs available now for handling the job, and
they have finally broken down the "geek wall" and made handling
compressed archives a practical possibility even for first-time
computer users. Our personal choice for new users is StuffIt
Expander.
How data compression programs do their stuff
Trickery and sleight-of-hand
How does data compression software manage to shrink data? This
is a question inquiring computer users have asked since the first
compression software emerged. When you think about it, data
compression sounds absurd. After all, how can 0's and 1's be
made smaller? The answer is surprisingly simple, but the time
and energy needed to turn this simple answer into a useable,
efficient piece of compression software can be staggering.
What PKZIP and all other data compression programs do is
write shorthand. It's just that simple. As an example, suppose
you had a short, one-line text file that read like this:
This is the time for all good men to come to the aid of the
party.
This line of text takes up 69 bytes, not counting the
formatting characters you can't see. Now suppose that there was
a shorthand which used basic typewriter characters to substitute
for whole words such as the and to and double letters such as ll
and oo. The becomes #, to becomes 2, ll becomes @ and oo becomes
&. Here's what happens:
This is # time for a@ gd men 2 cm 2 # aid of # party.
Those few changes resulted in a size reduction from 69 to 57
characters.
Shorthand and longhand
Now imagine that the software that creates this shorthand will
not only write the shorthand for you, but translate it back into
longhand at your request, and you have an idea of what data
compression software does.
But suppose that there were hundreds of these shorthand
tricks at work. Consider the amount of data that could save.
Now imagine that once the shorthand was done, the software used a
mathematical form of shorthand to create an even smaller file.
For instance, every time a and a space were together in the file,
the software could substitute a single character. In our
example, we'd save two more bytes, and another three bytes if #
and a space were together.
This is what PKZIP, DoubleSpace, GIF and all other data
compression software does. Each type of compression has its own
particular shorthand system, usually designed to fit the
conditions it sees in the type of data it's designed to compress.
The Graphics Interchange Format (GIF) uses shorthand based on the
popular types of pairings and groupings of graphical data. Some
types of compression use mathematical types of shorthand, while
others combine both mathematical and language-based shorthand.
Language-based compression
By far the most popular type of compression shorthand is
language-based. LHArc uses a fairly pure form of compression
known as Lempel-Ziv-Huffman, which is why LHArc's compressed
files end with .LZH extensions. Lempel-Ziv compression is the
most common compression algorithm on the IBM-compatible, used in
everything from program packers to PKZIP to disk compressors.
Its shorthand table is based on frequently-occurring pairs or
groups of letters in the English language.
Huffman coding is usually used to process data which has
already been through the Lempel-Ziv
part of the process. Huffman is more mathematically based than
Lempel-Ziv, but it's slow, so most disk compressors use a faster
variation known as Welch coding as their additional algorithm to
the Lempel-Ziv table.
A special type of compression known as JPEG (also referred
to occasionally as JFIF), used to shrink the size of graphics
files, is also language-based. It uses frequently-occurring
pairs of binary (non-text) characters to create a special form of
compression that works best with graphics files...better, in
fact, than GIF and without degree of data loss GIF files often
suffer.
Data compression software...who needs it?
When we said "universal" we meant it
Just about everyone either needs or can make effective use of
data compression, and just about everyone already does.
Imagine that you have a shareware or public domain software
package that you want to share with six friends. The package has
fifty files in it. In ten different directories. And you want
to give all of these people the same files. By tomorrow. This
is a situation many businesses face every day.
You have a choice. You can babysit your computer while you
create a disk with all the files and directories and laboriously
copy all ten directories, fifty files and six disks, or you can
use PKZIP.EXE or a simpler shell program such as Winzip to shrink
the files and directories down to one single, compact file, send
them to a computer bulletin board, and leave messages for all
these friends telling them that their software is ready and
waiting and where they can find it.
We've already discussed the uses PKZIP has for dealing with
files from bulletin boards, Internet and uldb shareware CDs.
Almost every user who swaps data with friends or coworkers will
eventually run across one or more .ZIP files.
Who needs graphics compression?
Graphics compression is a necessity in the television and motion
picture industries. A single frame from a motion picture reel
might be no bigger than a negative from a 35mm camera, but that
single frame can eat up more than ten million bytes of data on a
hard disk when it's translated into digital format. The better
the reproduction quality, the bigger the file. Now imagine the
storage headaches when you have several minutes' worth of video
to store digitally at the industry standard 30 frames per second.
A single 30-second video clip can chew up several times the space
available on an average home user's hard disk.
JPEG and MPEG (named for Motion Picture Experts' Group, the
developers of this video compression software) save millions of
dollars in storage space for video labs and production houses.
And with computer speeds increasing faster than hard disk speeds,
it's becoming as fast or faster to read a .JPG file into memory
and extract it than it is to read a full, uncompressed graphics
file. Newer forms of compression are promising even better
results.
Meeting the demand for desktop video
The demand for desktop video on home computers is huge. The
storage problems are enormous, though. The key to creating
real-time images of reasonable quality is the use of data
compression -- once again usually JPEG or MPEG -- to reduce the
disk storage requirements of the video images.
There are animation compression schemes in use as well which
compress the data even further by calculating where each part of
each frame will be located on the next frame of the video. In
addition to this lossless compression, a lossy compression is
often used to strip out a lot of the detail the average viewer
isn't likely to miss.
The result? In theory, video requires mountains more data
than audio to store. But you can now purchase full-length motion
pictures with audio on compact disks which are only designed to
store
72 minutes of sound.
The limits of data compression technology
Approaching theoretical maximums
According to experts in the field, we've come just about as far
as we can in developing general-use data compression software
using the mathematics we have at this time. The theoretical
limit for reduction of file sizes seems to average out at a 60
percent reduction in size using a range of test files. PKZIP and
LHArc have been refined and improved over the years to create
smaller files, but if the software started with an average size
reduction of 45 percent, the improvements have probably only
taken it to 55 or 60 percent. Data compression is one area of
computing where things aren't doubling every few years.
But there seems to be some question about the validity of
these theories that limit average reductions. A lot of
developers with strong math backgrounds claim that it should be
possible to create software which can average 80 percent
reductions or better.
Is the real limitation our slow computers?
Technically speaking, it wouldn't even take complex math to
perform this feat. We could probably do it now if we could
create programs big enough, and computers fast enough, to make it
worthwhile. You could probably reduce an average file by 80
percent if you had thousands of shorthand codes and a computer
fast enough to compare those codes to the list hundreds of times
on every file.
Most data compression software is limited in speed and size
reduction by the number of shorthand tricks it can use without
having so many calculations to perform that the software becomes
too slow to be usable. Shrinking a one megabyte file to
one-fifth of its original size isn't of much value if it takes
ten minutes to decode it for use on the average computer.
Other compression schemes for the PC
The rest of the best
At this writing, PKZIP is acknowledged to be the best overall
data compression software available to the general public. It
compresses and expands data as fast or faster than anything in
its class, and file sizes are as good or better than any other
popular compression scheme. PKZIP started as an improvement over
another popular type of archiving software called ARC.
ARC was the first popular compression software to combine
several files into one single file after they had been shrunk.
Systems Enhancement Associates are acknowledged by most to be the
pioneers of ARC, although many computer mavens dispute this
claim. And yes, ARC too used the language-based, Lempel-Ziv
compression algorithm.
Before ARC, there were LBR (for LiBRary), and SQUEEZE. .LBR
and SQUEEZE files were less efficient than ARC and also limited
to shrinking one file at a time. This was a problem with the
advent of bulletin boards and public domain software, because in
the early 1980's when these formats were popular, a lot of
publicly-available software packages included not just one but
several files. This made downloading and preparing the software
for use a real pain for the average user.
The up-and-comers
ARC isn't in wide use any more because ZIP, ARJ and LZH were so
much more efficient. Developer Phil Katz created a program which
could compress and extract .ARC archives faster than other ARC
programs of the day and called it PKARC. He later changed the
name of the program to PKPAK, partly to distinguish his software
from others, and partly because several other developers were
competing to create a better ARC format. (In this confusing sea
of competition, No-Gate Consulting produced its own popular
compression software called PAK, which -- ironically -- will
handle .ZIP and .ARC files!
Katz beat everyone to the better mousetrap by creating PKZIP
in the late 1980's. Upstarts have stolen the stage for a few
months here and there, most notably Robert Jung's ARJ compressor,
but PKZIP has been the front-runner ever since PKWARE released
Version 2.04 and will probably remain in front for most of the
rest of the decade.
PKWARE has always had other publishers nipping at their
heels though, and even as late as 1995 there have been a couple
of newcomers. RAR and UC2 are a pair of new archiving formats
that produce results comparable to or better than PKZIP 2.04g,
and while neither is widely used, they will almost certainly prod
PKWARE into producing even faster, more powerful compression
software for their 3.x release in 1996.
File compression on other platforms
UNIX is either replacing or being added to DOS and Windows on a
lot of PC's, thanks in no small part to the free Linux operating
system and the enormous popularity of the Internet where UNIX is
king. In addition to native versions of the ZIP and Lempel-Ziv
formats, UNIX has its own compression schemes such as gzip. As
Internet becomes more and more useful to the everyday user, we
can expect to see UNIX compression schemes become much more
widely used on the IBM-compatible.
The Apple Macintosh world also has its own compression
software, of which the most common
in use today is called Compact Pro. Earlier Mac compression
programs were known as PackIt and StuffIt, created by Aladdin
Systems who released the StuffIt Expander program for Windows.
They too use the Lempel-Ziv algorithm as part of their process.
Phil Katz of PKWARE has continued in his tradition of making the
programming secrets of ZIP compression available to the public,
and now every commonly-used computer type, from the Atari to the
NeXT, has its own ZIP-compatible software for creating and/or
extracting .ZIP files. Katz' idea was to have one common type of
data compression which could be used throughout the computing
world regardless of which operating system you used. He wanted
PKZIP to be that standard, and excellent PKZIP-compatible
software can be had by IBM-compatible, UNIX, Atari and Amiga
users.
Unfortunately, the one frontier he needed to conquer -- the
Macintosh -- didn't have ZIP software which worked reliably until
1994.
Copyrights and rights of use
STACKER is copyright 1988-92 by STAC Technologies
DOUBLESPACE is copyright 1992 by Microsoft, Inc.
ARJ is copyright 1991 by Robert Jung
PKZIP , PKUNZIP and PKLITE are copyright 1989-1993 by PKWARE
PAK is copyright 1988-90 by NoGate Consulting
ARC is copyright 1986-92 by Systems Enhancement Associates
LHA and LHARC is copyright 1988-91 by Haruyasu Yoshizaki
PKZIP/PKUNZIP are available for use free of charge for private
users; commercial users are legally required to register the
software.
ARJ and PAK are released as shareware and licenses for use must
be purchased by anyone who continues to use the software beyond
the limits outlined in the licensing agreement.
ARC, DriveSpace and Stacker are the trademarked property of their
respective copyright holders, and all rights are reserved.
LHA and LHARC are available free of charge for use by anyone
under the terms of the licensing agreement set forth by Yoshi.
Maintenance section 3: Back it up!
What if we were to tell you that you need never fear viruses and
trojans again, that you could look at them from now on as
nuisances no worse than a stain on a nice piece of clothing?
What if we were to tell you that all of five minutes a week could
protect you from all but the worst losses you might experience?
Enough of the "what-ifs"...let's get down to some hard facts.
A very common novice computing mistake is not backing up
important data. Understandable, actually. We're taught that
it's extravagant and expensive to have two of everything. But
when it comes to software, it's not extravagant at all. It's
essential insurance against loss. Computer data is very
delicate, and almost everyone will eventually suffer some sort of
data loss, either to a virus, old age or defective hardware.
Here's some information on what you can do to minimize that loss
with the least amount of effort.
What backups are and why you need them
The why's and how's of preserving your precious data
An equally important question: what to back up
The common types of backups
What backups are why you need them
Any consultant worth their salt will advise you to backup,
Backup, BACKUP! Consultants tend to be experienced, highly
knowledgeable users, and most of them practice what they preach.
Even software publishers believe in the practice, and they sell
data, not disks. In fact, it advises right in your DOS manual to
make a backup copy of your DOS installation diskettes. You'll
see the same warning in the manual for just about every important
piece of software you'll use, with the exception of some games
and utility packages. Here's why.
Why are backups so important?
Disks and data aren't damage-proof
It pays to have a lot of duplicate files
Are there any shortcuts you can take?
Why are backups so important?
Accuracy is everything
Backups are critical because of the nature of disks and data.
You don't really need backups of your cassettes because if a
little piece of magnetic film chips away from you tape, you'll
hardly notice it. Over the years tape will sound thin, but
you'll still be able to listen to the music.
Not so with floppy disks. Every bit of data has a purpose,
and if a tiny bit of magnetic film chips away from a disk, or if
a hair creeps into the disk's plastic shell and scratches the
surface, or even if a stray gamma ray from the Sun manages to get
through the ozone and strike the wrong place on your disk, the
entire software package might be rendered worthless.
What's worth more...the software or your data?
Backups are also insurance against fire or theft. If you paid
good money for your software, there's no reason why you shouldn't
be able to keep using it even if a thief steals the original
disks. Backups insure that you can. They also preserve your
work. How would you feel if your computerized personal diary was
lost in a fire along with every entry it contained? It's bad
enough to lose your computer in a disaster. There's no reason
why you should lose your data as well.
There is another reason why backups are so important, and it
has more to do with mistakes we make as users than physical
damage to disks. More on that later.
Disks and data aren't damage-proof
Corruption in your midst
Computer hardware gets more reliable with each passing year, but
we're still a long way from perfection. Disks fail and files get
corrupted far more often than the average user realizes. It's
probably fair to say that millions of users whose systems seem to
be functioning fine have corrupted data they don't yet know
about. No problem if the corrupted file is one you never use.
But what if it's the main program file that gets corrupted?
If you didn't have a backup copy of that file somewhere, you can
kiss the whole software package goodbye -- and worse, all the
work you did with it -- until you get a new copy. And the
problem might be a single 0 where there should be a 1.
Reputable consultants and tutors will always advise you to
back up every bit of data in your collection. If you use your
computer in a business environment, they'll probably advise you
to back up any new data on a daily basis. Home users probably
don't need to go to this extreme, but new files should be backed
up at least once a month.
The chore no one wants to do
Yet most users still don't back up their data. In the first
place, a full backup takes time. Usually an hour and often two
or three. (Actually, it only takes that long the first time
through. After the first full backup, adding new files to an
existing backup set usually takes no more than two minutes a day,
tops, or ten minutes a month for home users.) The second factor
is cost.
Backing up a fat hard disk requires costly tape backup
hardware or a lot of floppy disks, and not many people want to
shell out for fifty to a hundred floppies just on the chance that
they might some day need a tiny bit of data from just one of
them.
That is, until they discover that the tiny bit of data is
their 1992 tax return or a save file from a game they'd been
playing for weeks.
It pays to have a lot of duplicate files
Mistakes don't have to be fatal
If you get in the habit of doing regular backups of your whole
system and you're a business user (or just a busy home user),
you'll eventually wind up with several copies of the same files.
This happens because each time you make changes to the file, the
archive bit gets reset and your backup software will make a new
copy of it. Far from being a waste of disks, this can literally
save your backside in the long run.
Let's say you start doing your taxes with the Lotus 1-2-3
spreadsheet and save your work as MY_TAXES.WRK. You might chop
away at this chore for weeks, and do backups of your new data
every week, resulting in perhaps eight copies of MY_TAXES.WRK
stored on eight different floppy disks. It seems like a waste of
space until you consider what might happen if you make a mistake
with Lotus that you don't discover for a whole month.
You can rewrite history
One evening you recalculate and nothing seems right. But you
recall that a month ago, everything was right. If you have a
backup copy of MY_TAXES.WRK from that time, you can ignore the
newer backups and load that old, "useless" file into Lotus and
make your detective work fairly simple. If you kept erasing or
writing over top of your MY_TAXES.WRK file every week, that old
file would be long gone by now.
This is only one example of the benefit of having backups of
all your work in various stages of progress. Writers, home
accountants, students, artists and even game players can all
benefit from this seemingly wasteful duplication of data. Many
times we've erased old backups to make space for new files and
regretted the mistake later. We'd have been much better off
spending the money on a few extra disks than trying to conserve
space on the ones we had.
Are there any shortcuts you can take?
Not a place for cutting corners
There are no real shortcuts for avoiding backup boredom and cost.
There is generally a direct correlation between the speed of the
backup and the amount of money spent on backup hardware. Even
fast backup software takes a lot of time and patience.
The only real shortcut you can take with backups is to use
preformatted disks if you are creating a floppy disk backup set
so you don't spend fifteen minutes per box waiting for DOS'
FORMAT to do its thing. Unfortunately not even this trick
applies if your backup software uses special formatting, and some
programs do.
The why's and how's of preserving your data
Here's where you'll learn about the types of backups and learn
how to make an informed decision about how to balance price,
performance and security.
Backups from the DOS perspective
Manual versus automated backups
An important and oft-overlooked point: where to store backups
What you need for a proper backup
How much are you prepared to invest?
Backups from the DOS perspective
Copy, change, watch, forget
At the most basic level, this is how DOS and Windows look at
backups. The data being backed up is first copied to another
medium, which could be anything from a floppy disk to a tape to
another hard disk; then DOS changes the file so that it is
"marked" as having been backed up (this prevents needless repeat
backups every time the process is performed); and finally DOS or
Windows then watches that data during all subsequent backups to
see whether it should be included or "forgotten" for any future
backups. If the data has been changed since the last backup, it
is copied again so that the data with these changes is part of
the backup set. If it hasn't been changed, it is "forgotten".
Hacking DOS at the bit level
The people who originally programmed DOS knew the importance of
backing up data when they designed the MS-DOS software package.
Backup software has been included with DOS for many years now.
It had to be.
You might have memories of days not so long past when disk
manufacturing technology wasn't nearly what it is today, when you
could count on one bad disk in every fresh box of ten, and
floppies couldn't be relied upon to store data accurately from
one month to the next. The memory lingers to this day for many
people, and a lot of computing veterans still make two backups of
everything in case the first backup goes bad.
DOS' programmers had backups in mind they originally
designed the file system. Since the first days of DOS, all files
used on IBM-compatible computers have something called an archive
bit which is found in the same place on every file.
The archive bit
A bit is the smallest increment of data, and it can either be a 0
or a 1. The archive bit is found in the same place on all files
on your system. When backups are performed by intelligent backup
software, the archive bit on the file is changed from 1 to 0, so
that any backup software you might use will know that a backup
copy of this file, or "one for the archives," has been created.
Any time a piece of software makes changes to a file, DOS
looks at this bit. If it's set at 0, DOS changes it back to 1
again so your backup software knows that the file was changed
since the last copy was made. All true backup software has the
ability to ignore files which have already been copied to a
floppy disk and back up only the new data. That's why it takes
so little time after the first major backup has been done.
Manual versus automated backups
Two basic types of backups
There are two basic ways to back up software: manually, meaning
that you decide what to back up and how to back it up every time
you perform the chore; and automatically, meaning that you use
backup software which follows your instructions. While it seems
to make sense to do it automatically all the time, it's not
always the best way to go.
Pros and cons
Manual backups take longer to perform, but automated backup
software can be confusing for the novice user.
Most backup software will break large files into pieces if
they don't fit on a single floppy disk (a very common situation
with newer software), encode the software in a special way to
save disk space, and some even format disks in a way designed to
maximize performance. It can take anywhere from fifteen minutes
to two or three hours your first time out to figure out how the
software works, select the data to be backed up and start the
backup procedure.
Manual backup, on the other hand, merely requires that you
have an attached drive to be used to store the backup and enough
skill to copy files using Explorer or File Manager. You can
select what to back up as you go. You'll need a type of drive
that can handle files of the largest size you intend to back up,
which might pose a problem if you intend to use floppies for
storage. Eventually you can expect to run into software that
creates files too large to fit on a single floppy. Tape drives
are not generally suitable for manual backup, but the newer
magneto-optical drives such as the Iomega Zip Drive; and costlier
removable cartridge hard disks such as the Syquest, are ideally
suited to this type of backup.
Another drawback of manual backups is that you must know
precisely what files need to be backed up and where to find them.
That requires real expertise in regard to your system.
A matter of preference
If you are comfortable with automated backup software, such as
the backup program included with DOS, by all means use it.
Chances are good that automated backup will be a much better
choice than manual for the novice to intermediate-level user.
But keep this point in mind. The most common use you will
make of your backup set will be to restore a single file that got
corrupted, perhaps by a mistake on your part or a random hard
disk error. (These happen on the best of systems with remarkable
regularity). Automated backup systems using special file
structures and encoding can make finding and restoring single
files a time-consuming headache. Ask anyone who has tried to
restore a single lost file from a 250 megabyte backup tape!
With manual backups, it's simply a matter of selecting the
right disk and copying the right file, a job that won't take more
than a minute once you become comfortable with your computer.
We recommend a two-pronged approach
The simple method used in the Tiny Perfect Menu software package
(a primitive DOS training package available from our Web site)
could be termed semi-automatic. The backup is automated in
regard to creating the set of backup disks. If you decide to
backup your entire hard disk, it will do little else but ask you
to insert floppy disks for as long as it takes to copy the entire
contents of your hard disk to floppies.
But restoring the backup will only be automated if you
decide to make it so. You have the choice of restoring files
manually, which you'll use most often; or automatically, which
will be handy in case you need to reinstall everything on your
system. For us, and for many users, it's the ideal choice
We often suggest to novice users who have access only to
floppy disk backup that they avoid the DOS and Windows BACKUP and
other commercial backup software and do their backups manually,
at least until they become thoroughly familiar with file
structures. Manual and semi-automatic backups require a few more
floppy disks than automated backup software, but this extra cost
is offset by the ease of restoring single files or directories.
On the other hand, if you have access to a tape drive, and can
either configure automated backup software yourself or find
someone to do it for you, that will usually be the preferred
route.
Where to store backups
Better safe than sorry
As a general rule, it's best never to store finished backup sets
in the same location as the source computer. A backup is also
insurance against theft and fire, and if your backed-up data is
stored near your computer, theft or fire will result in the loss
of both your computer and your data.
If you use a computer in your business, store your backups
at home in case your business is burglarized or catches fire.
And if you use your computer at home, keep your backup set in a
drawer or locker at work, or with a neighbor or friend. Improper
storage is far too common with backup sets. What good is your
backup if the thief who steals your computer takes every existing
copy of your data too? It simply doesn't need to happen that
way.
What you need for a proper backup
Time and tools
Aside from time (set aside three hours for the first thorough
backup job; you may not need it but it's best to have it
available just in case), the most important thing you need is
disks or tapes to store your data. If you choose disks, you'll
need lots of them.
If you've never backed up your data, purchase one high
density floppy disk for every megabyte of space used on your hard
disk. You can use older double density disks, but you'll need at
least twice as many, so unless you already have a lot of them
lying around, purchase high density disks for the job. When it
comes to tapes, purchase at least one and possibly two more tapes
than you think you'll need. For example, if you have a 500Mb
hard disk and have 300Mb of data to back up to a 120Mb tape
drive, get four, not three tapes, for the job. You might not need
the extra tape, but better to have and not need than to need and
not have.
First you need to know the capacity of your hard disk.
Very often users either forget or simply aren't told by the
dealer. If you don't know how many megabytes of data are in use
on your system, here's how to find out. You may wish to print
this topic by clicking File and selecting Print topic.
Measuring space
The same utility you may have used before for fixing errors on
your hard disk, CHKDSK.EXE, can also be used to find out how much
space is being used on your system so that you can determine
exactly how much media you will need for your backup.
To use this utility you must exit Windows completely, or in
Windows 95, restart the computer in DOS mode. At the C:\_>
prompt, type CHKDSK (you don't need the /f) and the program will
report how much space is actually being used. If you also have a
D drive, you'll need to run CHKDSK.EXE on that drive too by
typing CHKDSK D:.
Here's a typical readout from CHKDSK. It's not instantly
obvious how much space has been used on your hard disk. The
actual amount of used space is shown on the fourth line,
highlighted in dark red.
448,102,400 bytes total disk space 1,499,136 bytes in 101
hidden files
4,448,256 bytes in 539 directories
366,845,952 bytes in 11,557 user files
74,285,056 bytes available on disk
8,192 bytes in each allocation unit
59,415 total allocation units on disk
13,783 available allocation units on disk
655,360 total bytes memory
602,256 bytes free
Using one-disk-to-one-megabyte, this user
will need approximately 360 disks to backup their hard disk. At
about 50 cents each, they're looking at a cost of at least
$180.00. This is an enormous amount of data to copy to floppy,
so much data that the cost of the floppies alone could pay for a
tape backup unit. This user has a serious choice...learn how to
make good partial backups or purchase a tape backup or removable
disk unit.
The time involved for the first backup will also be
considerable, probably between two and three hours depending on
what kind of backup hardware is used.
How much are you prepared to invest?
The choice ahead of you
This might seem like a lot of time and money for something you
might never need, and you'll have to think seriously about how --
or whether -- you want to pursue this. More and more people are
foregoing floppies altogether and either buying, borrowing or
renting tape backup units...or, with the cost of hard disks at an
astonishingly low price, using spare hard disks for backup.
Anyone who has lost the entire contents of their hard disk due to
a hardware problem or a nasty virus will tell you how much they
wished they had made a backup. It's cheap insurance,
particularly when you consider the time and effort you spent
creating any personalized data, and how you'd feel if you lost
it.
Backups are insurance you're almost certain to use, even if
you never need to collect full benefits. If you own a computer,
you will eventually have data errors. And when (not if, but
when) you do, you'll be grateful for the time and expense you put
into the job...or should we say chore.
The common types of backups
Backup methods
Full backup
Partial backup
Incremental backup
Emergency backup
Backup hardware
Tape drives
Magneto-optical drives
Floppy disks
Compact disks (CDs)
Full backup
What it is
A full backup includes every bit of data on your hard disk. When
doing your first backup, it's always wise to bite the bullet,
hunker down with a pizza and a rented video, and spend a quiet
evening backing up every file on every disk in your collection.
That includes your hard disk as well as anything on a floppy disk
that you might feel badly about losing.
Who benefits most from this method
This is the preferred novice method for backing up data, as
it is generally foolproof provided no damage occurs to the backup
media. It is also recommended for people who work with a large
number of programs or who like to sample a lot of software but
don't want the hassle of saving everything to floppy disks.
This is not the best choice for backing up on a budget unless you
have access to a portable backup unit you can borrow for the job.
Preferred hardware and software
This backup method is best stored on a high-capacity tape drive
(at least 120Mb and preferably 240Mb or higher for people with
many different programs on their systems), although many prefer
newer types of hardware such as the much faster magneto-optical
disk drives.
The type of software chosen is up to the individual, and
when in doubt use the software which was bundled with the backup
unit. If backing up to a floppy disk, you may have to settle for
the backup software that comes with MS-DOS or Windows 95. If
backing up to a tape or removable disk drive, there will almost
always be special software included with the drive for creating
the backup. While this bundled software isn't always the fastest
and most versatile, it can almost always be upgraded later
without necessitating a completely new backup.
When should they be done?
As soon as a few programs are installed on a new computer
and any new data has been created by its owner which it would
hurt to lose, it's time to think seriously about a full backup.
The longer a system is left without a backup, the more important
the first full backup becomes.
Other points to keep in mind
Full backups should also be complemented with smaller, emergency
backups which contain only configuration information designed to
return programs to their user-configured state.
Full backups must also be updated regularly or their value to the
user drops substantially. These backups should be performed at
the end of a computing session so they do not cut into productive
computing time.
Incremental backup
What it is
An incremental backup is a backup of only those files which are
new to your system or which have been updated since the last
backup was done. Incremental backups are the backups you add to
a backup set after having done the first full or partial backup.
Who benefits most from this method
Everyone who makes backups.
Preferred hardware and software
Incremental backups should always be done with the media
used to create the full backup. So if the full backup was
created on tape, the incremental backup should be added to the
tape, not stored on floppy disks. This makes keeping track of
the backup easier for the backup software and storage less of a
hassle for the operator.
The software used for an incremental backup should always be
the same software used to create the first full backup.
When should they be done?
It depends on the level of use and productivity by the user.
Generally speaking, it's a good idea for business users to
develop a system that automatically adds new and changed data to
a backup set at the end of each working day.
Personal business users who don't add a lot of data to their
system might be able to get by with weekly incremental backups.
Home computers used by anyone who depends on their computer
should be incrementally backed up at least weekly. Home
computers used casually can probably get by with monthly or even
seasonal incremental backups, providing the user doesn't mind the
risk of losing a month's worth of new information.
Other points to keep in mind
Incremental backups are only as good as the time and effort put
into them. Hopefully they'll be "worthless" in that they will
never be needed to restore lost data, but it's usually best to
prepare for the worst.
Daily incremental backups made by businesses and busy
individuals have one serious drawback. It's important to have
the backup media (tape, removable disk or floppies) near the
computer if you plan on making daily backups, but this also
leaves the risk of theft or damage quite high, since many events
that damage the computer's data will also damage any nearby
backup media.
It's wise to select a method of backup that allows you to
duplicate your entire backup set if you wish to do daily backups.
At this time, the removable magneto-optical disk drives appear to
be the best candidates for this.
Partial backup
What it is
Simple enough...it's a backup that selects only the most critical
data on your system, specifically any data created by the user
and any configuration data which is used to personalize the
software.
Who benefits most from this method
While it's not enough for people who want complete security
and everything about their computer simplified for them, a
partial backup can benefit everyone who creates new data on their
computer. This even includes people who only play games.
Partial backups will save positions in games, preventing the need
to go through early levels again if the saved game is lost.
Preferred hardware and software
None. It depends on how much data will be saved with a
partial backup. If it's just a few megabytes, it can be done
manually using File Manager to copy files to floppies. If the
partial backup involves a number of files created with many
programs, it is usually a good idea to use a removable disk drive
or tape backup unit for the job and use the backup software to
select only those files and directories needing to be backed up.
Configuring backup software for a partial backup takes
considerably longer than setting it up for a full backup, but
this is usually a one-time investment of time, and modifying the
setup later to include new files and directories takes only a
fraction of the time taken by the original configuration.
When should they be done?
The first partial backup should be done as soon as there is
useful data on the computer which it would hurt to lose.
Other points to keep in mind
If there is catastrophic failure of the hard disk, it won't be
just the user's data which will be lost. All programs will be
lost as well. While we cannot condone software piracy, it is a
fact of computing life that most users have software on their
computers which they do not own and cannot replace without
purchasing it. The only protection against this sort of
catastrophic loss, which is common enough to be worthy of serious
consideration, is to create a full backup.
Emergency backups
What it is
While the term is not commonly used yet, emergency backup
generally refers to backups which contain only the most critical
data on the system. For Windows users, this includes
configuration files for Windows and any DOS system files which
may be needed to restart the system and get into Windows if the
system suddenly refuses to run.
Who benefits most from this method
It's useless if you never have an emergency situation such
as a botched software installation that shuts you out of Windows,
never encounter bad data on your hard disk in a critical
location, never suffer a virus infection, and never make mistakes
which might erase critical data.
In other words, no one should be without an emergency
backup.
Preferred hardware and software
On the hardware side, emergency backups should always be
made to floppies designed for floppy disk drive A.
On the software side, there are many programs to choose from
but none of them are truly complete. Some, such as Norton
Utilities, back up critical information about your hard disk but
not all of your configuration files. Others, such as Safety Net,
First Aid, and our own F-A-S-T Emergency Windows Backup back up
some or all of your personal configuration files and DOS system
files but can't save critical information that would guard you
against a hard disk failure.
We recommend a combination of both types of emergency
backups. Fortunately, emergency disks containing hardware
information such as hard disk and CMOS setup data only need to be
made once.
When should they be done?
Emergency backups of critical DOS and Windows files should be
updated every time you add a new program to your system that you
plan on keeping for any length of time, and any time you do any
serious configuration of a program and want to make sure you have
copies of the configuration files. This will insure that if you
need to reinstall the program due to some problem with its
operation -- even if it was completely erased from the system --
you can restore your personal settings quickly and
easily...provided you reinstall the software to the same location
as before.
The first emergency backup containing information about your
hard disk and system should be made as soon as possible after
purchasing the computer. In fact, you might ask the dealer to
supply one on delivery of the computer.
Other points to keep in mind
Emergency backups of critical DOS and Windows files must be
backed up regularly if you wish to make sure that your system
keeps performing in the way you've come to expect. Restoring an
old emergency backup could cause programs which you have
customized to be restored to an earlier state, meaning that
you'll lose the work you put into the customization.
Tape drives come in two flavors: external and internal. The
internal units usually operate much more quickly than external
units and cost a lot less, but external tape drives have the
advantage of allowing users to share the cost of the hardware
among several users.
They also come in many capacities. In general, anything less
than 120Mb capacity is a burden for Windows users, and tapes for
smaller formats are becoming increasingly difficult to track
down. If you are considering the purchase of a new unit, the
best price/performance ratio seemed to be second-hand 120Mb units
at US$100 or less as of late 1995 and 240Mb new units at US$200
or less.
Be aware that tape drives, being mechanical, require some
maintenance (see the section on maintenance in the Insurance and
Medical section for more information) and many servicepeople
caution users not to expect a lifespan of more than two years on
any tape drive. Many seven-year-old units still function
flawlessly, but a large number of two- and three-year-old units
give up the ghost, and they are usually not worth repairing.
Magneto-optical disk drives are currently the medium of choice
for software collectors and people who want to use their backup
unit as an extension to their hard disk and not just as a backup
unit. At an average storage cost of US$0.25 per megabyte of
storage as of late 1995, they are economical means of storing
backups of installation floppy disks, copies of critical
installation files from compact disks, and software received from
the Internet and online services.
The most popular magneto-optical drive at this writing was the
Iomega Zip drive. At an average cost of US$250-300, plus
US$20-25 for each 100Mb disk, and with a data transfer speed
faster than floppy disks and the ability to track down individual
files much faster than tape backup units, they became so popular
that a serious shortage of disks developed in the fall of 1995.
These disks behave very much like tape or floppy disk media and
should be treated with the same respect. This means that you
should never count on one copy of your data to remain error-free
for long periods. As with all backup methods, two copies of the
data are recommended.
Floppies are the cheapest, but also the slowest and most
labor-intensive backup medium, and we do not recommend them to
anyone who can afford proper backup hardware. They are, however,
essential for emergency backups.
Compact disks are becoming a more popular medium for backup all
the time, due mainly to the cost. For about US$75, plus the time
it takes to remove the hard disk and transport it to and from the
location where the CD will be made, you can have up to 650Mb of
data transferred from your hard disk to a single
CD...permanently.
At least, that's the common perception. In practice, these
"one-off" backups onto CD are not nearly as reliable or
long-lived as many people have been led to believe. Depending on
the quality of the master CD used to create the backup, the disk
itself may develop errors in as little as a year.
As with all backup media, we recommend making two copies of any
custom CD backups for the sake of safety.
Also be aware that you cannot add to a CD once it has been
created. All you can do is cut another CD with the new data to
be added.
What to back up
No easy answer
The easy answer is everything. Unfortunately, the easy answer is
rarely the right one in the looking-glass world of computers.
Naturally if you have the time and the inclination, and can
afford a tape backup system for your PC, it makes sense to back
up everything...twice. It's a job you can start at bedtime and
finish in the morning with little lost productivity, and a second
backup of even a full, fat hard disk will only cost you an extra
$50 or so at most.
But most people don't have tape backups, many don't even
have access to loaners or rental units, floppy disk backups are
grueling chores, and CD "one-off" shops and magneto-optical
drives might not be an option.
There's a lot of data on your computer you can probably do
without. But if you don't know enough about your computer to be
able to tell the difference between essential and non-essential
data, the logical choice is to back up everything.
Backups of installation floppies
Many veteran users have gotten into the habit of making copies of
all new software that comes on floppy disks, and backing up the
contents of the installation directory on a CD before actually
installing the software. It might sound silly, but this kind of
habit usually comes from hard experience with more than one
installation disk or CD that went bad at a critical moment.
There's nothing more irritating than having to reinstall Windows
and discovering that one of the original disks is corrupted, or
selling your old copy of WordPerfect to someone who discovers
that the second disk in the installation set is damaged and the
product won't install on their system.
Windows 95's disk copy function is blazingly fast compared
to older DOS and Windows disk copy, and the Copy Disk function in
File Manager (available from the Disk menu) is simple enough for
virtually any novice to handle. If you're a new user, get into
the habit of buying a box of floppies every time you purchase an
expensive new program on floppy disk, and a new backup tape when
you purchase expensive software on CD, and making a backup of the
installation software. Not all manufacturers let you do this,
and some will provide you with free replacement disks if yours
should go bad, but ask yourself this:
If the program suddenly refused to function and your installation
disks or CD had errors, could you afford the wait for delivery of
new installation media? The choice is yours.
Full backups: much more important with Windows than DOS
Windows programs copy files to more locations than you'd probably
care to count, so you can't just back up Lotus 1-2-3 for Windows
or Print Shop Deluxe by copying its directory to a floppy disk.
Simply put, if you're a Windows user and want to be secure, back
up everything.
If you can't afford the time, expense and trouble to do a
full backup, you're computing beyond your means. This may sound
blunt and cruel, but it's the truth. The real tragedy isn't that
Windows is like this, it's that you probably weren't told you'd
need to make this kind of investment when you
purchased your computer.
Don't forget emergency backups
Even if you decide not to make full backups, there's no reason to
avoid creating emergency backups...not when we've made it this
easy. First Train for the Internet users will find an Emergency
Backup item under their Utilities menu which will walk them
through the process of creating an emergency backup of all their
critical files in a matter of no more than a couple of minutes.
This disk will protect against most of the major errors you are
likely to encounter and should not be put off.
Finally, backup your backup software!
It sounds obvious, but you'd be surprised how many people forget
to make floppy disk copies of their backup software and store
them with their backup disks or tapes. If you use the backup
software that comes with DOS or Windows 95, it's not a big
problem since you'll find copies of this software just about
anywhere. But if it's special software that came with the backup
drive unit, you might have a sticky problem if your hard disk
ever suffers a serious problem and you discover that one of the
install disks for the backup software is corrupted.
Disaster prevention for Windows
This section contains important information about preventing
problems with Windows and Windows 95 through the use of two
simple utilities. One of them tracks the complex arrangement of
files installed on your computer when you install a new file into
Windows and allows you to erase most, if not all, of an
installation with the click of a button, preventing system
conflicts and freeing up valuable disk space taken by unneeded
software. The other utility makes sure that your most valuable
Windows information --your start-up files and personal
configurations -- are secure and backed up in case you ever lose
this information as the result of a botched installation or
damaged files.
Uninstallers
What you need to know about uninstallers
Faros 3 PLUS: our uninstaller of choice
Emergency system backup
Emergency backup for recovery from common software problems
Our own F-A-S-T Emergency Windows Backup
Other protection
Antivirus software
Delete protection: how to reclaim what you wish you hadn't
trashed
What you need to know about uninstallers
If you're already using an uninstall utility most of this
material will be old hat to you. We still recommend browsing the
last two topics. They contain important information every user
should know.
If you've never used such a utility, we recommend taking the
full tour of this section. You'll find it enlightening, and if
you have any sense of adventure in your spirit you are almost
certain to find it very useful as you wander the net.
Windows' simple look is deceptive
Windows 3.1/3.11 won't make it easy for you
What about the Windows 95 uninstaller?
How do uninstallers for Windows work?
Two types of uninstallers: which one to choose?
Windows' simple look is deceptive
Not the easy job it once was
Removing DOS programs is rarely more difficult than erasing all
the files in one directory. If you know how to do that, in most
cases you can confidently maintain your hard disk and keep it
clean. It's a skill most DOS users had to pick up in their first
couple of months of use in order to competently maintain their
machines.
Even if you have good DOS and file management skills, do not
assume that you are skilled enough to erase unneeded Windows
programs. About half the time, erasing the obvious files --
those in the directory containing the main program -- won't
completely remove the software. About one time in ten, depending
on what kind of software you choose, erasing all or part of a
program will have unwanted effects on other important programs on
your system. DOS may be messy, but Windows sweeps its dust under
the rug so you can't see it.
Conflicts galore...part of life with Windows
Even more disturbing, some Windows programs install themselves in
such a way that they make other programs impossible to use until
they are removed from your hard disk. This includes some very
popular and useful programs recommended to First Train for the
Internet travellers and users of this guide. This sort of
problem happens with DOS as well, but not nearly as often as it
does with Windows.
Finally there's economics. Windows software takes up
enormous amounts of space on your hard disk. If you get serious
about using your computer, chances are excellent that you'll
eventually run out of space to store new data. You'll either
need to clean house or add another hard disk. This will happen
much less quickly if you keep your system clean by removing data
and programs that you don't want or need any more.
Windows 3.1 won't make it easy for you
Windows 3.1/3.11 and Windows for Workgroups do not make it easy
for you to determine what is and is not useful data. Uninstaller
utilities keep track of what you have, where the components are
kept on your hard disk, and what changes were made to your system
when the program installed itself. It can use this information
to hunt down and eliminate all traces of an unwanted program.
Why you need an uninstaller
If you buy new programs, subscribe to magazines with disks or
CD's which include software, or plan to get software from the
Internet on any kind of regular or semi-regular basis, eventually
you will wish you had an uninstall utility.
If you want to try new programs and can't afford to keep
adding new hard disks (most newer computers can have up to four
of them, older units will allow only two) each time you run out
of space, eventually you will wish you had used an uninstall
utility when you had the chance.
And if you have ever installed a program and discovered that
another favorite program stopped working the second you restarted
your computer, you already wish you had an uninstall utility.
What about the Windows 95 uninstaller?
It's just not enough
Windows 95 comes with its own built-in installation tracking
utility. Like many things Microsoft, it demands that things be
done its way and has some serious limitations that many users
will never know about until it's too late.
The Add/Remove Programs wizard will track installations of
Windows 95 programs...provided the author has included the
appropriate file that the wizard needs to track the process. It
will not track Windows 95 programs that do not include this file,
and what's worse, if you try to install these programs using the
wizard, it will not even warn you that the installation has not
been tracked.
This wizard will track installation of drivers and operating
system components too...provided you install them using the
wizard. If you do not see the wizard during the installation,
the software has not been tracked.
It will track some 16-bit Windows programs designed to run
on both old and new versions of Windows, but only if these
programs include the file needed by the wizard to track the
installation.
Interestingly, while most Windows 3.1/3.11 uninstallers will
leave traces of the old program behind when they uninstall
(usually traces you won't mind or notice anyhow), they are every
bit as effective for most programs than a dedicated Windows 95
uninstaller.
Useless with programs which have already been installed
We repeat...the wizard will help you remove programs you install
after upgrading to Windows 95...but only with programs
specifically tailored for this wizard. Even most new programs as
of January 1, 1996 did not support Microsoft's uninstall wizard.
It will be of no use to you with software you already have
on your system. It will only work with components of Windows
95's operating system and accessories, and with programs you have
not yet installed.
Now that you know the facts, you have a choice. You can
live without an uninstaller and either pay someone to clean your
hard disk of useless files every few months, or you can start
using an uninstaller, keep your system free of clutter, and start
enjoying the mountain of software available on the Internet
without worrying where to put it all...or how to clean up after
programs that just don't cut it.
How do uninstallers for Windows work?
Uninstallers range from the ridiculously simple to the
unbelievably complex. But they all work in one of two different
ways.
After-the-fact uninstallers
The more complex after-the-fact uninstallers check every file on
your system against every other file, find out which files are
strays or associated with particular programs, and give you
choices about whether or not to erase them. They can also check
inside the files themselves for clues about what program or
programs they are designed to be used with. These programs can
work with software already on your system.
This type of uninstaller also demands a lot of knowledge
about your system...either that or a lot of reading in order to
get that knowledge.
Installation trackers
The simpler installation-tracking type of uninstaller -- the type
we recommend -- works only with software which have not yet been
installed. You run this type of uninstaller before installing
any new software. First it takes a reading of every file in
every critical area where Windows software can install itself.
The program is left running while you install your new software.
When the job is done you click a button on the uninstall utility
which starts a second reading. This second reading is compared
against the first and the uninstaller creates a record of all
changes made to your system.
This second method allows the uninstaller to keep a very accurate
record of what went where during the installation procedure, and
is smart enough to undo virtually anything that was done to your
configuration, erase every single file associated with the
software and every bit of configuration information added to your
system during the installation process.
These simpler, install-tracking uninstallers aren't always
as thorough as the expensive, sophisticated commercial models
(for example, they won't find and remove unneeded duplicate files
left behind by previous installations) but they are much easier
to use and understand.
Two types...which to choose?
Some people prefer to have one of each kind of uninstaller on
their system, but the fact is that any quality uninstaller used
as directed will do a pretty fair job of keeping your system
clean. Still, you should have an idea of what you're getting
into before you start working with any of these tools, because as
mentioned previously, any software designed for the purpose of
erasing data from your system can produce unwanted side effects
if it isn't used carefully. If you can match the pros and cons
of each type of uninstaller to your particular computing style,
then you should be able to choose wisely between these two types.
Pros and cons of after-the-fact uninstallers
Can you use an uninstaller for programs already on your system?
Yes. Should you? In most cases, our answer is no...but this
depends on the uninstaller program you use and the software you
want to remove.
There are many commercial programs, most in the US$50.00
range, that claim to be able to remove almost any software
package installed at almost any time. If you have a big
collection of software you'd like to prune back right now, it
might be worth the investment. But in tests done by some
well-respected computing magazines, none received a perfect
score. In fact, some actually erased important files needed by
other programs! The ones that played it safe didn't do a
thorough job. On the other hand, they're easy to use. You don't
have to remember to run them before each new installation.
Pros and cons of install-tracking uninstallers
Install-tracker-type uninstallers tend to cost much less.
Faros Uninstaller 3 PLUS is a free program from author Periklis
Koutsogiannis and Software Innovations. Most install trackers
cost from US$10.00 to US$25.00, and most of them do about the
same job as Faros, although some are considerably less effective.
Check the information with this program...you may have an early
version which will only work with pre-95 Windows versions.
On the plus side, a well-written install tracker won't
accidentally delete software used by another program simply
because it can't find a connection. It deletes what was
installed and nothing else. They're fast, effective, simple to
use and require no knowledge of your system. You don't have to
(and shouldn't) use install trackers for programs you expect to
keep for a long time. You can reserve them only for testing new
software. They don't need updating, since a well-written install
tracker should never have to be updated to accommodate minor
changes to an operating system or new types of software available
for an old operating system. And they can usually be used on any
version of Windows.
On the minus side, some install trackers will erase files
needed by other programs, since many programs need the same set
of shared resource files. This is no more than an inconvenience
though. At worst, you'll have to reinstall a program which uses
one of these shared files, and it's not likely to happen that
often, if ever. You must also remember to run the uninstaller
before actually installing the software. And some install
trackers do a less-than-perfect job of cleaning up configuration
details on your system. Once again, this should never be more
than a minor inconvenience.
We hope you see now why we recommend install-tracking
uninstallers, even though they require a little more effort to be
used effectively.
If you need help now...
Our advice if you need a lot of data removal done right now is to
find a local expert, perhaps a college student or high school
hotshot you can hire for an hour or two, to clean your hard disk
for you. Find someone who will know enough to get Windows back
up and running if the wrong file gets erased. Not all of the
commercial uninstallers can do that for you, but we do know of
some which have a habit of suggesting that you delete important
data.
Faros: our uninstaller of choice
A gift from Software Innovations
The uninstaller supported by Dynamic Living Media is Faros
Uninstaller. It's a free program, a junior version of their more
sophisticated AppControl product, which should provide all the
uninstall protection the average novice to intermediate-level
Windows user is ever likely to need.
It has one unfortunate drawback. The version included in the
January 1996 version of First Train for the Internet, 3 PLUS, was
not Windows 95 compatible. The author was putting the finishing
touches on Faros 4 at the time and you may be able to find links
to the newest version either on the First Train support site.
Naturally if you can afford a sophisticated tool such as
CleanSweep or Uninstaller, you might not want to bother with
Faros. But if you're a Windows 3.1/3.11 user on a budget, this
is the "best-of-show" of free or low-cost uninstall utilities and
we strongly recommend using it.
Emergency backup for Windows
Because Windows doesn't come with life-preservers
The next essential item to pack for your trip is emergency
Windows backup software. If you use a tool such as Safety Net,
First Aid or another Windows utility that backs up your most
important DOS and Windows files, you won't need this software.
But if you don't have emergency backup software, sooner or later
you're in for an unpleasant surprise. It's the rare Windows user
who doesn't get locked out of their system due to a botched
installation, a crash at a critical moment that corrupts a
Windows or DOS file, a virus infection or something as
unpredictable as a stray gamma ray from the Sun damaging a
critical spot on your hard disk.
Good news and bad news
The bad news is that Windows and DOS don't come with
emergency backup software, and the tool Microsoft makes available
on the Windows 95 upgrade CD has proven to be less than
satisfactory in our tests.
The good news is that we have included click-and-go
emergency Windows backup software with First Train for the
Internet as a no-cost extra. It's so important that we believe
every computer user ought to have and use a tool like it, and
until such time as we find a freeware program that does the job
better we're making this software freely available to all from
our support site.
Our own F-A-S-T Emergency Backup
A better spare-tire-and-wrench set
This utility is a special backup routine that will copy the most
important files from your system to a floppy disk. Once this
disk has been made, you'll need to keep it updated regularly,
which usually takes less than a minute each time you do it. This
disk will help you effortlessly recover from about 90 percent of
the most serious software emergencies you might have, and
possibly save you an enormous amount of time and money spent
troubleshooting a faulty installation.
We specialize in writing training and support software.
We're not programmers. So be aware that this software is a bit
of a hack-together job. But it works, and it has been tested and
has already saved its users thousands of dollars in
troubleshooting and service calls they would otherwise have
needed. If you ever get locked out of Windows, F-A-S-T Emergency
Windows Backup will get you up and running again almost
instantly. You just have to remember to use it.
Note: F-A-S-T Emergency Windows Backup is not included with this
version of PC Owner's Survival Guide.
One of the nicest features about DOS since version 6.0 is its
ability to allow you to recover deleted files you wish you hadn't
erased. This button takes you to a section of Random Jottings
where delete protection and undeleting is discussed in more
detail.
Windows 95, of course, comes with delete protection as a standard
feature, and you can unerase files dragged to the trash can by
double-clicking on its desktop icon. This section is
specifically designed for Windows 3.1/3.11 users.
This help button takes you to a section of the guide where you'll
learn about antivirus software.
Part 3: Computer and workplace ergonomics
This unfinished guide to health, safety and comfort for
professional computer users attempts to cover a wide range of
topics. Unfortunately not all are covered in depth. Use the
links to other sources for computer-related stress information
found within this document. (Section authored by Rae Telcher)
General information
Repetitive strain injury
Tips for preventing and dealing with RSIs
Creating a user-friendly workspace
Monitor-related stressors
Computer-related emissions
Noise pollution
General information
Medical disclaimer
Philosphical issues: why bother at all?
Seven areas of computer-related stress management
Creating a user-friendly workspace
Keyboard ergonomics Wrist rests
Elbow rests
Relaxation: the best prevention
Alternative input devices
Mouse ergonomics
Monitor-related stressors
Effects of monitor stress
Eliminating glare with filters and screens
Eliminating glare with common sense
Flicker: what it is and what to do about it
Fluorescent lighting and interference flicker
Screen sway
Flyback wear: a very serious problem
Screen type, size and dot pitch
Screen resolution
Screen brightness
Gauging your level of monitor stress
Copy holders
Color your (virtual) world
Computer-related emissions
"Exposure to ELF (extremely low frequency) electric fields can
alter cellular physiological and behavioral events...At
present, studies serve as a warning that unnecessary exposure
to electric fields should be avoided...
"It is recommended that efforts be made to limit exposure,
particularly for members of the general population, to levels
as low as can be reasonably achieved."
Environmental Health Criteria: 35,
Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) Fields,
World Health Organization, Geneva, 1984, pp. 18 and 88.
An introduction to computer-related radiation
Scalar-wave ELF emissions
Medical foundation for ELF shielding
Reduced emissions and energy savings
Medical Disclaimer
This work is designed to provide information in regard to
the subject matter discussed. The author is an unlicensed,
uncertified consultant whose expertise and qualifications extend
only to offering general guidelines and suggesting possible
avenues of individual exploration. Except where specifically
stated in the text, this work is not to be construed as
authoritative or based on accepted medical research or proven
scientific principles. Every effort has been taken to insure
that speculation, hearsay and conjecture are represented as such
and not as proven facts.
The concepts, problems and solutions discussed in this work
are presented to educate and entertain. Neither the author nor
the publisher shall have liability or responsibility to any
person or entity with respect to any loss or damage caused or
alleged to be caused either directly or indirectly by misuse or
misinterpretation of the information contained in this work. Any
therapies, activities or devices described herein are strictly
adjunctive or complementary to medical treatment, and are to be
used only after consultation with, and under the strict
supervision of, a qualified medical practitioner. Self-treatment
is not advisable for any ailment, and the reader is urged to seek
out the best possible medical assistance if and when symptoms
described in this work present themselves.
Philosophical Issues: Why Bother At All?
Into our minds, out of our heads
The farther we get from nature, the more perils we create for
ourselves and the harder we have to work to keep ourselves
healthy and happy. Computers are no exception. The way they're
used is one thing; the way they're built poses other problems.
What computers do, what they have always been meant to do, is act
as substitutes for our real brains. Since their inception, we
have tried to create and structure the computer as a mirror of
the way we think, and to create and structure its hardware -- the
interface --as a mirror of the way we move.
It has been a process doomed to failure. For starters, we
are still learning how the human brain works. Trying to create a
substitute for the brain under these conditions is like trying to
invent margarine without ever having tasted butter. And if the
computer itself is a poor representation of the human brain, the
interface is doomed to be a poor fit for the human body. If it
were a good fit, the computer probably wouldn't work!
Satisfied with a poor fit
The sad truth is that we are trained by our culture to be
satisfied with poor fit. So it's no surprise to me that I
encounter a lot of resistance when I speak to employers about the
importance of ergonomics and computer-related stress. Too many
would rather get rid of a whiny employee or chalk up repetitive
strain injuries to poor work habits than spend a few dollars
improving the work environment.
It's a damnable shame. People are getting hurt. And it's
changing, because those same people are starting to win judgments
from the Workmen's Compensation Board and their employers for
work-related injuries. I believe that we're going to see a lot
of proof over the next few years that computers are a much
greater stressor than is commonly believed, or even suspected,
today. That's sad, because it usually takes injuries to
thousands of people to make us realize that a cultural
institution is a health hazard. Remember how long it took with
cigarettes.
The biggest risk: the problems we still don't recognize
The problems we can't see or adequately measure in the present
are always the ones we most wish we knew about after the fact.
It's too easy to call up the ghosts of asbestos, urea
formaldehyde insulation or coal tar dyes in food. Two years ago,
I may have needed to do so to make my point. At that time,
carpal tunnel syndrome was just another medical buzzword. Now
almost everyone who uses a computer knows what it means, at least
in terms of physical suffering.
Probably the most frightening tendency I see in employers
(and fortunately I don't see it often because I don't usually get
-- or accept -- their business) is defiant ignorance of ergonomic
concerns of any kind once the office is functioning at an
acceptable level. The reasoning behind this defiance appears
sound. Make things easier in one area and the natives will get
restless about something else. No one will ever be completely
satisfied. And if no one is visibly, or at least provably ill,
why fix what ain't broke?
This is sound logic used to support an unsound argument.
Sure enough, if you remove a major stressor from someone's life
there will usually be a long sigh of relief. But once the
person relaxes into a less stressful environment, they begin to
notice more subtle problems that never bothered them before.
Making an inhuman task humanly tolerable
Working with the contemporary computer is not a task suited to
humans, and as long as people rely on the digital beast there
will be distress and its associated symptoms. Any employer who
takes action on these issues will almost certainly be met with
another battery of complaints at a later date. If they refuse to
deal with the most pressing set of problems, their employees will
never have the strength or confidence to confront them on subtler
issues. It's cheaper, at least over the short term, to avoid
complaints rather than deal with them.
It's probably more true of computers than most things in
life that it's best not to mess with what works. But
computer-related stress doesn't leave visible marks, and illness
and injury can be around for a long time, often chalked up to
other things, before anyone wonders whether they might be related
to workplace stressors. By the time we realize something doesn't
work, it's often too late for anything but damage control.
I don't know whether it's better for a company's bottom line
to ignore ergonomics completely or to make them a
cost-is-no-object priority, but my guess is that neither is
measurably more profitable in the long run. I'll also guess,
with the wish that I could be more certain, that the highest
cost-benefit spikes occur near the extremes: at the bare minimum
acceptable and the maximum possible within reason. In a very
real sense it's like raising a child: doing nothing is a recipe
for eventual legal trouble; doing everything will bleed you dry.
Penny wise and dollar dumb
Any employer who responds only to the most serious and visible
threats will eventually pay through occasional stress-related
injuries, nuisance terminations, quitting/rehiring, and in many
cases, lawsuits. An employer who spends a small fortune on
ergonomics will, on the other hand, save money through increased
employee satisfaction and loyalty, enhanced productivity and
reduced downtime. How far a given employer goes with ergonomics
and workplace health issues depends upon how much they value
their employees as people and how far ahead they plan.
Personally, I much prefer working with -- and for -- employers
who strive toward long-term growth with a people-first
philosophy.
Difficult choices
If this is your first serious look at computer and workplace
ergonomics, you may be facing some difficult choices. You'll
have to decide who you can trust and how much hard evidence you
require before taking action. At the risk of straining my
credibility, I believe very strongly that there are areas of
human functioning which we have barely begun to acknowledge and
aspects of life which we don't yet understand. Twenty years ago,
Kirlian photography, which captures the electromagnetic field
around living beings on film, was a novelty. Today it is gaining
acceptance as a tool for medical diagnosis, and being used to
monitor the effectiveness of medical treatment in many countries.
Computer emissions can interfere with the human electromagnetic
field. How much evidence will you require before you decide that
it's a potential hazard?
Now think in these terms. A few years back, when you were
still working primarily with DOS-based applications, you may have
been told that you needed to upgrade to the new 386s to bring
office productivity up to where it should be. The truth is that
while some DOS functions benefit from the
increased speed, for example Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet calculations
and WordPerfect's page-preview mode, many of them don't. You may
also have been told you needed $2,000 worth of color laser
printer when a $750 inkjet printer would have done the job. You
may also have been sold a $600 word processor where the Write
program built into Windows, which sold by itself for around $100,
would have been more than adequate.
Overinvested and underinformed
Nearly half of my clients bought too much hardware or software
based upon the recommendations of a colleague or computer
professional. If you've been quick to invest based upon expert
advice in your physical plant, and often find that you've
overinvested, it's consistent business practice to be just as
open to advice regarding the maintenance, upkeep and long-term
performance of your personnel, and just as willing to risk
overinvesting in this area.
(I don't apologize for referring to employees to numbers and
raw resources here; this is business we're discussing after all,
and the best long-term approach to business practice is almost
always the most humane as well.)
How you choose to proceed is up to you, but this report
should help you make more informed decisions. I personally
prefer to err on the side of caution when possible. I've wasted
money on the occasional quack gadget from time to time, but the
state of my health tells me that I've made a lot more good
decisions than bad ones. The proof of this pudding often needs a
long time in the oven.
Scared smart
It's not fun to be motivated by fear, but it's often the only
emotion that moves us to action. I'm going to discuss a few
computer-related stressors that you may never have heard of
before, let alone consider important, and it's my hope that you
are scared by them. Our culture has a long and inglorious
tradition in regard to stress management: the more we learn about
stress, the more past damage we uncover and the bigger the bite
we lose from our paycheques to cover the cost of cleanup.
Computer-related ergonomics is an area of special concern to
me, and it will probably be several years before you hear another
consultant discussing the dangers of flat-wave emissions coming
from the central processing chip or interference-flicker stress
from fluorescent lighting. It's up to you what you do to take
care of your health and the health of your employees, but I'd
rather risk losing a client or two than keep quiet about issues I
believe in.
Seven areas of stress management
"Common sense prevails
where education fails."
-author unknown-
Common sense is only common
to those who have it.
-Anonymous-
There are seven major areas where the average home or office
computing environment can be ergonomically enhanced or made
safer. They include:
monitor type, condition and setup
monitor placement
mouse and keyboard ergonomics
noise
lighting
desk and seating (furnishings; not included in this report)
emissions protection
None of them should be overlooked; all of them can be
improved to the maximum reasonable degree for a one-time cost
averaging from $500 to $1,000 per workstation; and there are free
and under-$100 solutions in all of these areas. Improvements in
any area will contribute to enhanced safety, comfort and job
satisfaction over the medium and long term.
In addition, there are ways to improve work efficiency with
exercises and relaxed work pressures around the computer. I am
not at all impressed with Japanese-style management; enforced
exercise periods and structured group stress breaks seem almost
fascistic to me. I prefer offering employees the opportunity and
tools to take care of themselves; it's up to them whether they
can -- or choose to -- take advantage of that opportunity. This
aspect of workplace stress will be discussed at the end of this
report.
Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI)
The following was taken from Dan S. Wallach's (1994) Typing
Injury FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions): General Info USENET
news.answers. Available via http://www.CS.Princeton.EDU/~dwallac
h/tifaq/
"Specific injuries you may have heard of (note: most
injuries come in two flavors: acute and chronic. Acute
injuries are severely painful and noticeable. Chronic
conditions have less pronounced symptoms but are every bit as
real.):
"Tenosynovitis: an inflammation of the tendon sheath.
Chronic tenosynovitis occurs when the repetitive activity is
mild or intermittent: not enough to cause acute inflammation,
but enough to exceed the tendon sheath's ability to lubricate
the tendon. As a result, the tendon sheath thickens, gets
inflamed, and you've got your problem.
"Tendonitis: an inflammation of a tendon. Repeated tensing
of a tendon can cause inflammation. Eventually, the fibers of
the tendon start separating, and can even break, leaving behind
debris which induces more friction, more swelling, and more
pain. Sub-acute tendonitis is more common, which entails a
dull ache over the wrist and forearm, some tenderness, and it
gets worse with repetitive activity.
"Carpal Tunnel Syndrome: the nerves that run through your
wrist into your fingers get trapped by the inflamed muscles
around them. Symptoms include feeling pins and needles,
tingling, numbness, and even loss of sensation. CTS is often
confused for a diffuse condition.
"Adverse Mechanical Tension: also known as 'neural tension',
this is where the nerves running down to your arm have become
contracted and possibly compressed as a result of muscle spasms
in the shoulders and elsewhere. AMT can often misdiagnosed as
or associated with one of the other OOS (occupational overuse
syndrome) disorders. It is largely reversible and can be
treated with physiotherapy (brachial plexus stretches and
trigger point therapy).
"Others: for just about every part of your body, there's a
fancy name for a way to injure it. By now, you should be
getting an idea of how OOS conditions occur and why. Just be
careful: many inexperienced doctors misdiagnose problems as
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome, when in reality, you may have a
completely different problem. Always get a second opinion
before somebody does something drastic to you (like surgery).
"Why does Occupational Overuse Syndrome occur? Here's the
theory:
"Normally, your muscles and tendons get blood through
capillaries which pass among the
muscle fibers. When you tense a muscle, you restrict the blood
flow. By the time you're exerting 50% of your full power,
you're completely restricting your blood flow.
"Without fresh blood, your muscles use stored energy until
they run out, then they switch to anaerobic (without oxygen)
metabolism, which generates nasty by-products like lactic acid,
which cause pain.
"Once one muscle hurts, all its neighbors tense up, perhaps
to relieve the load. This makes sense for your normal sort of
injury, but it only makes things worse with repetitive motion.
More tension means less blood flow, and the cycle continues.
Another by-product of the lack of blood flow is tingling and
numbness from your nerves. They need blood too.
"Anyway, when you're typing too much, you're never really
giving a change for the blood to get back where it belongs,
because your muscles never relax enough to let the blood
through.
Stress, poor posture, and poor ergonomics, only make things
worse.
"The most important element of both prevention and recovery
is to reduce tension in the muscles and tendons. This requires
learning how to relax. If you're under a load of stress, this
is doubly important. Tune out the world and breath deep and
regular. Relaxing should become a guiding principle in your
work: every three minutes take a three second break. Every
three minutes, take a three-second break. Really, do it every
three minutes. It's also helpful to work in comfortable
surroundings, calm down, and relax.
NOTES: Internet World Wide Web users will find this FAQ
(Frequently Asked Questions sheet) available at:
http://www.cis.ohio-state.edu/hyper-text/faq/usenet/typing-inju
ry-faq/top.html (Dan Wallach's page)
http://www.cs.princeton.edu/grad/ dwallach/). For other
information, try ftp.csua.berkeley.edu, an extensive anonymous
FTP archive, including the typing injury FAQ, alternative input
device information (descriptions, reviews, and GIF images of
alternative keyboards and mice), and some software. Maintained
by Dan Wallach [log in to unmask]
Preventing and dealing with RSIs
The latest buzzword
Unless you've been living in the mountains for the past two
years, chances are you've heard at least some of the fuss about
repetitive strain injury in the workplace, and carpal tunnel
syndrome in particular. It can affect almost anyone who performs
the same repetitive manual tasks day-in and day-out who is not
protected with supports or proper equipment. I saw the career of
a capable rock guitarist destroyed in a summer of loading steel
onto trucks. I've either seen first-hand or heard of it
affecting everyone from workers in chicken-processing plants to
robot arm operators.
The group probably most prone to repetitive strain injuries
to the wrists and hands are computer workers, data entry clerks
and typists. Injury usually results from holding your hands with
the muscles tensed and the wrists bent backward while you type
over a long period of time.
No palpable means of support
Strain to wrists, forearms and shoulders can also occur as a
result of typing without proper support. Hunt-and-peck typists
often suffer from stiffness in the upper back and shoulders. The
only long-term solution is to retrain yourself to be a ten-finger
typist so you can rely upon the wrist rest to support your arms
rather than your back and shoulders.
Holistically speaking, if you try to deal with these
problems as a preventive measure and you are not currently
experiencing symptoms, chances are you will start having symptoms
when you adopt proper support and technique. The most common
symptom is irritability. This is not a sign that you're doing
something wrong, but often a symptom of withdrawal. With less of
a load to carry, your nervous system becomes more sensitive to
other stimuli. Things which may not have bothered you much
before may suddenly become intolerable. Unfortunately, this
reaction doesn't fall under the scope of this report, so you'll
have to find some way to diagnose and deal with it on your own.
Why RSI's occur
Why does RSI happen at all? You don't hear about professional
pianists getting CTS, and they appear to break every rule in the
book for healthy keyboard posture. The reason pianists seldom
get CTS is because their hands, arms and shoulders don't remain
in a fixed position for prolonged periods. The changing emotions
in the music also change the way they use their muscles, and even
which muscles they use.
In other words, pianists get a workout. What typists endure
is torture in comparison. Less energy is required to press a
computer key than a manual typewriter key, so rather than a
tense-relax cycle each time you strike a key, the muscles get
locked into a constant state of low-level tension that will
ultimately try to make itself permanent. It's simply part of how
our bodies adapt to stress and activity.
Low-cost, common-sense preventive treatment
Fortunately, a little common sense and some inexpensive
accessories will virtually insure that you'll never suffer from
carpal tunnel syndrome caused by your computer. The key lies in
changing the wrist angle so that the wrist is either straight or
breaks forward when typing, or to relax the forearm and reduce
tension in the area surrounding the critical nerve bundles.
Changing the wrist angle can be as simple as retraining
yourself to hold your hands higher off the desk as you type. But
if the heels of your hands are not supported, you create a
condition of prolonged tension in upper torso muscles. Depending
on your physiology and response to stress, this could cause
cramping or stiffness under the arms, between the shoulder
blades, in the upper back, in the arms themselves or in all these
locations.
This will not go away until the problem is solved, If
symptoms appear to be reduced after a time, it may be because the
muscles have permanently locked themselves into position. You'll
often experience a warning that this is about to happen in the
form of mild electric shocks or stabs, coldness, slight pain or
numbness in the associated area. Once the muscles lock,
physiotherapy may be the only way to unlock them, and it will
probably be a painful process as blood starts to flow again into
suffocated tissues.
Keyboard ergonomics
Covering the angles
Changing your wrist angle shouldn't require retraining your
muscles. Instead it can be accomplished through changing the
position of the keyboard or adding support to it. Ideal keyboard
height is as low to the lap as possible. The angle between your
shoulder and wrist should be greater than 90 degrees for optimum
comfort and endurance.
Some people prefer a low chair and a high desktop for
handwriting and reading. Setting the keyboard on the desk in
this situation is a recipe for stiff muscles and a set-up for
CTS. If the chair can't be raised far enough to create a large
enough wrist/shoulder angle, an under-desk keyboard drawer should
be installed. Some desks can be lowered by removing their
casters; I've done this to my desk at home.
Keyboard drawers should be deep enough to accommodate the
keyboard with three inches to spare. This extra three inches
will be needed by the wrist rest, which I'll discuss in a moment.
They should also be wide enough to hold both the keyboard and a
mouse pad.
Getting a rise from your keyboard?
Most computer keyboard have riser or elevator tabs on them which
allow the back to be raised. This sets the keyboard on an angle,
giving it a feel more like that of a manual typewriter. These
tabs can be folded back into the keyboard, and this could reduce
wrist break by just enough to make the difference between safety
and pain.
(I have a confession to make at this point. I've been
computing for more than two years with the riser tabs opened out.
As I was writing, I decided to see how it would feel to type
without them. I was surprised by what I discovered. Instantly I
found myself relying much more upon the wrist rest for support,
which can only be a good thing. After a few minutes of
adjustment my typing speed and familiarity with my desktop is
back to normal. While this is just my own personal experience,
this extra reliance upon the wrist rest is enough to make me
wonder whether all computer keyboards shouldn't be used with the
riser tabs folded away. Any change in keyboard position will
require a short period of adjustment, and your computing may feel
cramped for anywhere from a day to a week, but it's still better
than not changing a stressful posture.)
Wrist rests
Mandatory equipment for all typists
Virtually every computer user who types with more than two
fingers can and should use a wrist rest. A wrist rest is a pad
or platform which butts onto the front edge of your keyboard and
provides support for the heels of your hands while you type.
This support relieves stress to wrists, shoulders and upper back,
and forces your wrists to bend at a more natural angle while
typing.
No more than two years ago, wrist rests were boutique items
costing up to $60 each. Today you can find them in almost every
computer shop or department store at prices as low as $3. At
that price there's no excuse for not having one for every
computer in the office, and your home system as well. Even
computer manufacturers have gotten into the act; some keyboards,
computer desks and notebook computers come with wrist rests
designed right in.
You might not need a wrist rest
One- and two-finger hunt-and-peck typists probably don't need
wrist rests, mainly the wrists break forward naturally when you
type in this fashion, but as we'll see later, this style of
typing has drawbacks of its own.
There are two main types of wrist rests: padded and hard
platform. Which one you should choose depends upon your
biochemical physiology more than your muscular makeup. If you're
the type who gets a lot of rashes, sweat rashes in particular,
stay away from hard plastic or steel wrist rests,. Even padded
rests upholstered in vinyl or leather will probably be
unsuitable. The cheap foam-rubber variety with the fabric
surface will probably be more comfortable during long typing
sessions. If you're more prone to eczema, dry skin and itching,
a smooth, hard surface will probably be more comfortable,
although it won't provide the same degree of balanced support
offered by a padded wrist rest.
Two pads are often better than one
In cases where pain has already begun to appear in the wrists and
hands, one wrist rest may not be enough. You might have to
choose one of the pre-cut foam pads instead of the
leather-covered tray-type rests and stack two of them on top of
each other, or rig up some extra elevation on an existing wrist
rest until your wrists bend far enough forward that you can type
without discomfort.
Elbow rests
The more support the better
Wrist rests simply aren't enough for many people. This will be
particularly noticeable if a person using a wrist rest, or pair
of stacked wrist rest pads, finds that the heels of their hands
chafe while using the keyboard.
This chafing is nearly always a sign of overwork, but it can
have other meanings as well. Skin sensitivity (which could in
turn have a number of other causes) may also play a role. But
until the root cause of the problem is dealt with, management of
the irritation is critical. This chafing will prompt the typist
to raise their hands off the wrist rest in an attempt to avoid
irritation, causing stress to shoulder and back muscles.
In order to reduce the total level of stress, it's important
to take pressure off the wrists. The best way to do that is to
distribute some of the pressure to the elbows and forearms by
giving them something to rest on.
Probably the best solution is a suitable desk chair. This
chair should not merely have armrests, although that will do in a
pinch, but adjustable armrests. Preferably the armrests should
not merely move up and down to correspond with the natural height
of the typist's elbows, but slant inward somewhat across the
typist's lap.
Forced by the hardware into bad posture
Watch a typist working at a desk without elbow or forearm support
and you can see how this works. Standard typewriter keyboards
tend to pull one's elbows in toward the waist. For women in
particular, this causes in the elbows to be pulled tightly in
toward the waist, well away from the support offered by standard
armrests. This effect is not quite as pronounced with ergonomic
keyboard designs, but it is still visible. The natural tendency
is to pull one's arms in away from the armrests. Only an armrest
design which slants inward over the lap will properly compensate
for this effect. Ideally it should be positioned so that the
armrests rise up just high enough to take the desired level of
pressure off the heels of the hands, and slanted in far enough to
allow for the hands to address the keyboard as naturally as
possible.
These chairs are not cheap either, but once again they can
be considered a lifetime purchase, and an investment in the
health and well-being of the employee.
Any port in a gathering storm
A good second alternative is the use of unnatural support as an
interim or temporary solution. Any chair with armrests that do
not rise beyond the height of the desk is suitable for support.
Since most keyboards are still positioned an inch or two higher
than the ideal height, and most armrests provide the same excess
height, a chair with armrests can be added to the workspace to
match the desk height. The armrests will probably be positioned
well away from the body as well. The typist will have to swing
their arms out to set them on the armrests and this will result
in a highly unnatural address angle to standard keyboards and
even most ergonomic keyboards as well. This is not good for
long-term use, but it does allow the typist a choice of two
postures which can be alternated to spread the overall stress
load and reduce the potential for long-term injury until a
long-term solution is affordable.
Rolling your own supports
A cheap substitute for a proper ergonomically-designed steno
chair can be rigged using a standard metal office chair with
armrests. First, the wooden slats can be replaced with 3/4
plywood slats three to five inches in width (the smaller the
typist, the wider the slats) which are bolted so that the excess
width closes in on the typist's waist. Wrapping the wooden slats
with several thicknesses of terry cloth towelling will provide
fairly natural and comfortable padding. A keyboard tray can then
be attached with a swing-out arm or removable hinge to the front
of the chair to provide the correct keyboard height in relation
to the armrest height. An inch or two of stiff foam can be added
to the seat itself to bring the typist up to a proper height, and
a footrest can be added for proper posture. All this guy-rigging
will not be pretty, but it works, and it's a lot cheaper than a
$300-600 ergonomically correct steno chair.
Sadly, I do not foresee prices on quality chair designs dropping
until demand rises considerably above current levels, meaning
that a great many typists may have to resort to this homemade
solution for short- to medium-term relief.
Relaxation: the best prevention
Some people just aren't cut out for this
It's been my experience that relaxed typists don't suffer from
typing ailments nearly as much as high-strung typists.
(High-strung people probably aren't suited to clerical,
data-entry and terminal-intensive work in the first place, but
that's another story.) Typing under stress will magnify the
effects of any improper keyboard posture or lack of support. If
stress overload is a chronic condition with you, as it is with a
large number of people, it is doubly important that you protect
yourself with proper supports.
You can coax a little extra relaxation out of your hands and
wrists by engaging in sports or games that use these muscles on a
regular basis. It could be anything from table tennis to rock
climbing to a couple of minutes of wrist curls with a dumbbell a
couple of times a day at the office. This will have another
unusual side effect at first: as your wrists and hands begin to
relax, your typing speed will actually drop. It might even
plummet. Once again, this is nothing to be concerned about.
It's a side effect of your body's adaptation to using different
muscles, or just less muscle, for a job that used to be more
demanding. Stimulating yourself with music or conversation with
coworkers will help to distract your consciousness and give your
muscles more freedom to re-learn healthy typing posture.
An investment that pays off in many ways
A note to employers: if you're concerned by this talk about
reduced performance when adopting healthy typing posture, be
aware that this temporary reduction in job performance will be
more than compensated over the long term. Healthy typing posture
actually allows for increased typing speed once the muscles are
retrained. I'm an exceptional case, but my typing speed dropped
from 40 to 50 words per minute to under 20 when I first changed
my keyboard posture. Today it sits at about 60 to 80wpm. I've
been typing since I was ten, so this improvement was not a
natural result of experience. And for the first time in my life,
I don't need to look at the keyboard.
Alternative input devices
Ergonomically designed keyboards
One of the most marked side effects of my increased typing speed
is how it has changed my perception of the keyboard. I now find
standard computer keyboards quite ungainly. I've been looking
long and lovingly at the new ergonomically designed keyboards
from Microsoft, Apple and others. If I did not have two fingers
missing on my right hand, I'd probably own one of these new
keyboards right now.
You've probably seen one or the other. The new
Apple/Microsoft keyboards use a split-keyboard design which
decreases stress by placing the keys in a more natural position
in relation to your hands. I have become an ardent supporter of
these devices for any ten-finger typist (or would-be ten-finger
typist) who does depends upon a keyboard for their livelihood.
There are custom keyboard and data entry units available in a
variety of shapes, sizes and prices. The best mid-priced unit
I've seen is the Ergo-Key, a keyboard that tilts the two halves
of the keyboard up into an inverse V.
Once you get used to the unusual layout of the keys, the
feel of these alternative input devices is extremely comfortable
and over the long term actually contributes to improved typing
speed. At about $130 for the Microsoft keyboard to $300 for the
Ergo-Key to over $1,000 for some custom-made input devices, these
keyboards are not cheap. But if they are well-maintained they
are a lifetime investment that will pay off handsomely in terms
of reduced pain and irritation and increased efficiency.
A wish for kindness
At the very least, I'd like to see these offered to employees who
use standard-type DIN-connector computer terminals on an employee
purchase plan. At best, I'd like to see custom-built keyboards
offered on a buy-back arrangement to all employees who use a
keyboard more than two hours a day, so that the employee can
purchase their custom keyboard at its depreciated value and take
it with them if they decide to leave the company.
These items used to be reserved for paraplegics and those
handicapped by other injuries, but some of these suppliers are
discovering that their clientele are more and more frequently
victims of RSI's who must have access to their computers. As of
late 1992, a fact sheet and price list was published by Dan
Wallach for those interested in alternative input devices. The
file, typing-injury-faq/keyboards, can be requested through
[log in to unmask]
For more information...
For additional information, you can also seek out Don Sellers'
Zap! How Your Computer Can Hurt You--And What You Can Do About
It from Peachpit Press, Inc., 1994. ISBN 1-55609-021-0. His
email address is [log in to unmask] Emil Pascarelli and
Deborah Quilter wrote Repetitive Strain Injury, a Computer User's
Guide, published by John Wiley Sons, ISBN 0-471-59533-0. You can
also look for Stephanie Brown's, Preventing Computer Injury: The
Hand Book from Ergonome, ISBN 1-884388-01-9. A free packet of
information is also available from the US Government. Ask for:
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome Selected References (March 1989), NIOSH
Publications Dissemination, 4676 Columbia Parkway, Cincinnati,
Ohio 45226. Thanks to Dan Wallach for this information.
Mouse ergonomics
Mouse rests? You've got to be kidding.
Yes, you heard me right, the mouse rest, and I confess that when
I first heard about the idea I thought someone had taken the
whole repetitive strain issue just a tad too far. I don't need
one personally, but having observed the way many of my clients
handle and hold a mouse, I'm beginning to understand the need for
this product.
Many mouse pads now come with a raised wrist pad to prevent
the wrist from breaking backward during use. I confess that I
never once considered the possibility that it might have a
purpose, but I know several users who swear by them.
Whether you should use one depends upon how you hold the
mouse. As a long-time user, I've grown so comfortable with it
that I drag a lot of my hand across the desk as I'm using my
mouse. Most importantly, the heel of my mouse hand never rises
off the desktop. My wrist doesn't break. I have no personal
need for a mouse rest.
More important than many users realize
Not so with many less-experienced users, particularly if they use
a fabric-surfaced mouse pad. These pads make it rather
uncomfortable to drag your hand along the desktop while you use
the mouse, so many users get into the habit of resting the heel
of their hand on the pad and breaking their wrist sharply
backward as they use the mouse.
Some employers, usually for rather trivial reasons, insist
upon the use of a mouse pad. I've never liked them and never
used them for more than short periods. I much prefer moving the
mouse over a hard, smooth desk surface, or even over a cardboard
sheet used as a coaster. My favorite mouse pads are the smooth,
Teflon-coated variety. Setting the mouse on a hard, smooth
surface is the most natural way to use the mouse, and results in
the least stressful grip. But if you must use a mouse pad,
either use one with a mouse rest or rig up a makeshift wrist rest
high enough to prevent your wrists from breaking backward. The
Mouse Arena was one of the first devices to use a mouse rest, but
it may not be nearly high enough for many people. In fact, none
of the mouse rests I've seen offer enough elevation to provide
proper wrist support for particularly high-strung users.
Trackballs demand more natural posture
If you use a desktop trackball instead of a mouse, you probably
won't require support. You can lean into a trackball in a way
you can't with a mouse, and this extra pressure eases the stress
on tendons in the wrist. Pen mice offer a similar degree and
type of strain relief.
Another way to reduce mouse stress is to choose the right
mouse. Sicos and Microsoft build mice designed to support the
hand and reduce strain. These mice are raised at the front so
that the palm sits firmly on the body of the mouse. This reduces
tension in the wrist. At the other extreme, I've tried fairly
costly mice from Logitech and Dexxa which were almost torture to
use for long periods. The Microsoft and Sicos mice at $50 to
$100 at this writing, depending on the model, features and
retailer, are two to four times costlier than generic replacement
mice, but they are also such a joy to use that ordinary mice feel
clumsy and uncomfortable in comparison. Both are sold retail in
right-handed models; both can be special-ordered for lefties.
An irritation your muscles actually like
Shifting back and forth between mouse and keyboard can be
irritating for creative or detailed work where concentration is
critical. But this movement helps spread the workload among the
muscles. One problem I suffered at a time when I was heavily
dependent upon the mouse was a condition called mouse shoulder.
The fine movements required by the mouse require relaxation.
If you have not participated in physical activity recently, this
fine movement can make other muscles in the areas affected feel
jumpy, twitchy or even spasmodic. If they're not exercised,
they'll eventually lock into a cramped position in order to
permit the necessary fine movements. This cramping ultimately
results in pain, and setting the mouse aside for a few days while
the muscles unwind seems to be the best way to handle the
problem. Fortunately I know of no cases where this problem was
nearly as severe as carpal tunnel syndrome, but it is something
to watch for if you use the mouse a lot or play a lot of
mouse-driven games. Excessive joystick use can result in similar
problems. Ask anyone who's ever stayed up all night with Flight
Simulator, Doom or Wolfenstein.
Effects of monitor stress
It's not just the eyes that suffer
Anything that stresses the eyes or the visual cortex of the brain
will have repercussions on the entire nervous system. The
problem with nervous system complaints is that they're damnably
difficult to trace back to the source. If you have unusually
good eyes, monitor stress might not manifest itself in the eyes
or even the head. It might show up as diarrhea or hypersensitive
skin, increased irritability or hostility, or even an unnatural
feeling of strength or weakness.
The difficulty in tracing these complaints often results in
nothing being done to improve the environment until the exact
cause of the problem can be isolated. That creates another
dilemma: most nervous complaints have a root cause plus several
environmental triggers. Eliminating one environmental trigger
may reduce symptoms below the conscious level, but if the root
cause is untreated they'll reappear later, leading you to believe
you've done nothing at all to help the problem when in fact you
have.
A dangerous and insensitive attitude
This is a dangerous and insensitive attitude. In actual fact,
eliminating one stressor will have a definite positive effect.
It buys time for the body to heal or build up defenses, or simply
a few weeks or months of reduced symptoms.
Even if symptoms do come back, they won't be as severe as
they would have been with the extra stressor. Anything you can
do to remove or prevent negative stress is worthwhile. In your
creative department, it often means providing staff with the
highest performance they can comfortably handle so that boredom
and waiting don't result in mistakes and frustration. In all
departments, it means providing the safest, most natural work
environment your budget can support.
It's time that more employers began looking at workplace
stress from an economic standpoint, not through the lens of
personal work ethics or tradition. A small change that reduces
stress by one percent should result in an average of a little
more than one fewer sick day per employee per year. If this
reduction requires replacement of every monitor in the office
with low-radiation units and provision of electromagnetic
shielding devices for every employee at a total cost of $400 per
person, the investment will be fully repaid in less than two
years based on a lost-productivity value of $20 per hour.
Eliminating glare with filters and screens
Fabric mesh glare screens: only for the desperate
Let's start with the painfully obvious. Take your expensive $30
fiber mesh glare screen and toss it. They provide only the
barest reduction in glare, and they also add stress to your view.
These fibers are supposed to be woven so finely that you can't
actually see them. In a way, that's true...you don't see them
consciously. But they do register on your visual cortex. Fabric
glare screens also have a slight fuzzing effect on the image that
reaches your eyes.
Filtering out unwanted visual information takes energy.
It's a negative stressor in this case since our bodies are not
yet genetically adapted to appreciate this kind of visual input.
Although it might seem minor, glare screen distortion is
something you can usually do without or work around. Polarized
screens made of plastic or glass are better than fiber mesh, but
they may still not be enough. Test carefully before buying.
Non-glare screens: usually a disappointment
Non-glare screens are supposed to eliminate the need for glare
filters, but as most owners will tell you, they're usually a
disappointment. These screens are burnished by grinding which
removes the gloss, but this grinding is also visible at a
subconscious level as tiny grains of sand, or in the case of bad
grinding jobs, as very fine streaks.
A newer generation of glare filters are actually beginning
to do a reasonable job at a reasonable price. Many office supply
stores now carry polarized glass filters which actually reduce
glare and emissions. They use the same polarization used in
sunglasses as a way to reduce glare, and radiation reduction is
generally achieved by adding lead to the glass, just like
lead-glass crystal. At this writing, the polarized glass screens
range from $35-50 and the same models with leaded glass from
$70-100. It's still not cheap, but it's considerably less than
they sold for no more than two years ago.
Eliminating glare with common sense
Rearranging the furniture
Reflected light is usually most visible on the top half of the
screen because that's where the screen's curvature catches the
glow of office lighting and reflected sunlight. Much of this
glare can be reduced by lowering the height of the monitor or
changing its angle. There's nothing wrong, relatively speaking,
with raising the back of the monitor so that it tilts downward
toward the desk, particularly if it alters the glare angle enough
to kill reflected light. In most cases, a downward tilt on the
monitor and a makeshift hood of paper, cardboard or sheet plastic
will put an end to reflective glare.
Generally speaking, the fewer layers of filtration you can
put between your eyes and the computer screen, the better. You
can't escape the fact that there's a layer of glass (or, on a
laptop, plastic) between you and the screen surface, but you can
usually reduce or eliminate unnecessary glare without adding
extra barriers.
Ideal lighting positions and conditions
The ideal position for lighting either a
home or office workspace is behind and
above the user and out of the field of
vision. Unfortunately, most people have
wide enough peripheral vision that
anything other than ceiling-mounted
fixtures will create glare. The ideal
light source is natural, through a
skylight or window. Windows should be
ceiling-mounted or north-facing so that
direct sunlight is not a problem, but this
isn't possible if the south-facing
high-rise across the street is covered in
glass.If you're lighting from a single
source, you'll often get shadows which result in high-contrast
areas in your field of vision. These shadows can be reduced with
a second light source or through the use of fluorescent tubes if
you don't mind the flicker, but they will add a second possible
source of glare.
Flicker: what it is and what to do about it
Not something the average user notices
Most color monitor screens flicker at a rate of 35 times per
second. If you've ever noticed the way TV screens and monitors
flicker when they're shown on film or videotape, you've seen how
this works. This flicker is yet another stressor.
Unfortunately, there's no way to eliminate it with today's
monitor technology, so how you deal with it depends upon which
side effects you find most tolerable.
If you're relaxed, overworked or part of a creative
profession, at some point you'll become acutely aware of this
flicker. Visible flicker is caused by a low-speed (and
lower-cost) electron gun that only redraws the screen about 35
times per second. (Actually the screen is painted 70 times per
second. The flicker comes from the gun painting every other line
on each pass.) This is called interlacing. It's supposed to
happen faster than the human eye can detect, but an individual's
optical sensitivity changes from moment to moment. Creative
people seem to spot flicker instantly in any monitor; high-strung
people tend to notice it more when they look at the screen out
the corners of their eyes; most people seem to see it most
vividly under dim fluorescent lighting.
An often unnecessary irritation
The flicker itself is a sensory irritant as much as a direct
nervous stressor. If the screen flashed at a rate of six to
twelve times per second, it would probably put you to sleep,
because that's your brainwave rate in relaxation and sleep.
Flashing light at rates from 14 to 21 cycles per second tends to
produce an increase in alertness. As the vibration rate rises
beyond the rate of normal human alertness, people tend to feel a
sort of unfocussed irritation. At 35 cycles per second, subtle
brain functions can be affected. These effects are generally not
felt consciously since the effects do not take place at a level
anyone but a yoga master might notice. Still, if achievement of
higher consciousness is a priority in your life, it's probably
wise to avoid computer monitors and TV screens and stick with
passive laptop screens which don't flicker at all.
Who will appreciate non-interlaced displays
Those most bothered by flicker tend to be people who work in
creative professions, where any unnatural stimulus is unwelcome;
or graphic arts, where there is intense visual focus on small
screen details. It's safe to say that a non-interlaced monitor
that paints the screen 60 to 70 times per second is an excellent
investment for anyone needing minimal external stimulation. At
this writing, non-interlaced monitors are generally $50 to $100
more than comparable interlaced monitors.
NOTE: Most amber monochrome (non-color) screens flicker at a rate
of 60 to 70 cycles per second and are not nearly as stressful as
inexpensive color monitors.
I also advise non-interlaced monitors for parents, since children
may be more susceptible to the neurological effects of screen
flicker at 35 cycles per second (cps).
Many people with non-interlaced monitors are not getting the
performance they paid for. You can't just plug most
non-interlaced monitors into your existing setup and expect the
flicker to disappear. You may also have to adjust the graphics
adapter card which attaches your monitor to the motherboard of
your computer. There's often a little jumper or switch on these
cards, shown in the card's manual,
which changes your card to allow the monitor to operate in
non-interlaced mode.
Other changes might be needed
Newer monitors may require that you run a piece of software which
configures the graphics adapter card for non-interlaced
operation. You may have to change your video drivers for Windows
as well, particularly if you've been using the high-color drivers
offering 65,000 or 16 million colors, because the video adapter
card may not support non-interlaced operation at these higher
color levels. Also be aware that some older VGA adapters do not
support non-interlaced monitors at all, meaning you'll have to
replace the card to get a non-interlaced display from your
monitor.
There may also be a performance tradeoff as well. Since the
card is working twice as hard to send data to the screen, you may
notice significant speed reductions in some graphics operations
when you switch to non-interlaced mode. In general I recommend
upgrading the graphics adapter card than to go back to normal
interlaced operation, particularly if you work in a creative
profession.
Fluorescent lighting and flicker
Two light sources at war with your nerves
There's another type of flicker almost no one in the field ever
discusses. In most offices, lighting is supplied by fluorescent
tubes. These tubes flicker sixty times per second as the current
alternates from positive to negative. Some monitors,
particularly older multisync models, flicker at the same 60-cycle
rate, but most flicker at a different rate, usually 70 cps. Like
two sets of ripples on a pond, the two waves cancel each other
out or amplify each other as the ON and OFF peaks in their cycles
meet each other. Twice every second you'll get a cycle with
almost no flicker, and just as often you'll get a flicker which
is about twice as intense. I haven't yet met the person whose
eyes were so sharp that they could actually see this happening,
but it is a very real phenomenon.
Your eyes may not notice flicker unless the environment is
right, just as your ears won't notice the 60-cycle hum of a
poorly-grounded radio until there's a break in the music.
Imagine this hum with two loud ticks every second and you have an
idea of the interference effect of working at a computer screen
under fluorescent lighting.
I have observed that monitor flicker tends to be more
noticeable under fluorescent lighting than under incandescents or
halogens. Incandescent bulbs use a white-hot filament of metal
to create light, Fluorescent tubes create light by applying an
electrical charge to gases in the tube. Halogen lamps use both a
filament and gas. The solid metal filaments in incandescent and
halogen lamps don't heat and cool rapidly enough between pulses
of current to cause a visible flicker, so they are considered to
be flicker-free light sources.
Not a guaranteed fix
Changing from fluorescent to incandescent or halogen lighting in
a sensitive computing environment won't eliminate screen flicker,
but it can significantly reduce the degree to which it is
noticed. Halogen bulbs tend to be much costlier than
incandescent bulbs, but they also tend to last longer and produce
more light from less energy.
Screen sway
Dazzling...but not in a friendly way
Screen sway is visible as a mild to severe, rapidly vibrating
screen image. It is generally found with inexpensive monitors or
older monitors which have had a lot of use, and it's caused by
electromagnetic interference. It's usually an intermittent
problem but in severe cases it can be constant.
The interference itself usually emanates from a strong,
poorly shielded power supply. The culprit could be the power
supply transformer in the computer; the transformer in the
monitor; the motor in a forklift, refrigerator or air
conditioner; even the microwave oven in the lunchroom.
The only reliable method of tracing the problem
The only reliable way to trace the source of the interference is
through trial and error, and the only reason to trace it is if
several monitors are swaying at the same time on the same site.
If only one monitor is experiencing sway, exchanging it with
another monitor from a different office or site may cause the
sway to disappear and prevent the need to purchase another
monitor, at least temporarily. But if a geographical cure
doesn't solve the problem, the monitor should be replaced
immediately.
Screen sway is a serious optical stressor. Our eyes will
try to dart back and forth with the screen, whether we want them
to or not, in an effort to keep up with the movement of the
image. The only relief from the irritation this produces comes
with exhaustion, which is preceded by severe eyestrain,
dizziness, and possibly double vision, headache and general
irritability.
Not a problem to be taken lightly
I've seen far too many users take screen sway lightly. Momentary
sway which only occurs for a second or two when a nearby motor
switches on might disrupt a user's concentration for a moment,
but constant sway is torture. I left one jobsite literally in
tears at the end of each day after working on a monitor which
swayed about a quarter of an inch for fifteen minutes out of the
hour.
Flyback wear: a very serious problem
A potential problem, especially with older monitors
This may be the most dangerous problem on any monitor...and
perhaps the most common. Over time, circuits in any CRT device
(monitor or TV) wear out. If nothing else dies first, the
flyback will eventually collapse the image to a tiny dot or line
in the center of the screen as the monitor says a final farewell.
Don't hesitate for one second before servicing (or, ideally,
replacing) a monitor on which the display is shrinking
vertically, horizontally or all around. Worn flybacks may be the
number one cause of increased radio emissions from monitors, and
these emissions can include large amounts of cancer-causing
x-rays. According to a technician I met in Ontario, intermittent
flyback failures on a worn TV or monitor are accompanied by large
momentary bursts of x-rays. Some sensitive people even claim to
be able to feel these bursts physically or experience bizarre
visual effects. Even brief exposure to x-radiation can damage
living tissue.
Emission levels rise with age
A flyback doesn't need to be worn out to emit higher than
allowable levels of radiation. There are standards governing the
level of x-radiation and radio emissions allowable from a new
monitor. But like carbon monoxide emissions on cars, these
levels change with use...almost always for the worse. This same
technician also told me that almost every TV that came into his
repair shop was over the legal line for emissions, and flyback
maladjustment was the prime cause. Yearly adjustments help (if
you can find a technician willing or able to do them) but they're
no cure.
Fortunately, newer monitors use resistors which are designed
to burn out before the flyback can actually get worn enough to
produce this kind of problem, but when in doubt, err on the side
of safety.
The best cure is prevention
The best solution at this time is to prevent emissions in the
first place by purchasing a monitor conforming to stringent
Swedish government standards for allowable emissions. These
monitors leave the factory less toxic than standard monitors, and
will probably continue to produce lower than normal emissions
even when they're out of tune. TVM literally built their market
presence in North America by marketing the first full line of
affordable low-radiation monitors. Today almost every
manufacturer produces low-rad versions of all of its most popular
units.
It's easy to dismiss this as no big deal. After all, you
don't see a lot of people demanding a change in standards or
mandatory annual monitor tests. Then again, you don't see a lot
of mechanics wearing face masks when they blow the dust out of
your brakes either, even though that dust is probably asbestos.
And you don't usually see mandatory auto emissions testing until
the area considering the legislation has smog thick enough to
serve on a plate.
Screen type, size and dot pitch
Monitor screens come in three major types: dot-pitched,
continuous phosphor and liquid-crystal display (LCD). There are
others, such as plasma and rear-projection, but these are the
three most common.
How monitor screens are laid out
Color monitor screens are usually made up of tens of
thousands of circular dots. Hybrid dot screens such as the Sony
Trinitron, Toshiba Blackstripe and RCA tubes use rectangular
screen divisions rather than dots. If you look closely at these
screens, you'll see that they're made up of interwoven rectangles
rather than dots. These tubes are much more pleasing to the eye
and provide a more accurate picture than dot screens, but they're
also considerably more expensive. Sony is by far the most common
and respected maker of hybrid color monitors, and their prices
reflect that. A hybrid monitor is worth the investment for
anyone who uses their computer for extended periods, especially
for graphics-intensive work such as desktop publishing.
Dot screens come in various sizes, usually ranging from 14
diagonal to 19. (The latter are much costlier than 14 and 15
screens, and high-end graphics monitors of up to 30 diagonal can
be purchased for prices starting in the thousands of dollars.)
The dots themselves come in various sizes, and generally
speaking the smaller the dot size the better. When VGA monitors
burst onto the scene a few years back, the dots were usually
.39mm to .42mm in diameter. Today's standard is .28mm, and you
shouldn't settle for anything less...or, rather, more. The
smaller the dot, the sharper the picture...sort of.
Adjusting sharpness
You see, the way the monitor is adjusted plays a role in picture
sharpness. Many monitors come with a sharpness dial on the back.
Ideally this control should be set for maximum sharpness but a
lot of people don't like this effect, particularly when running
Windows in VGA mode. The screen fonts and graphics appear much
more jagged and the dot pattern on the screen surface is much
more visible on a screen with sharpness at optimum. This is an
esthetic problem, and softening the screen to give it a more
pleasing effect actually degrades picture quality. A sharp
picture is also better for your eyes, and better for your psyche
as well. Regardless of how irritating crisp pixels might look,
our bodies always prefer a sharp, real image to one which has
been artificially altered for esthetics.
I discovered this for myself a year or so ago when shopping
for a monitor. I found that I had a distinct preference for LCD
laptop screens, where each graphical software pixel is
represented by its own clearly-defined liquid crystal and no dots
distort the image in any way. Regrettably, I have not been able
to find an LCD screen for my home computer.
In the end, it's up to you whether you prefer the soft
illusion of sharpness created by a slightly fuzzy image or the
sharp reality of jaggy pixel images on a crisp display.
The size of your monitor depends on your pocketbook. If
space is not a problem, my usual recommendation is to purchase
the largest screen you can afford. A 17" monitor with a dot
pitch (dot size) of .28mm will have more dots per inch than a 14
monitor with the same dot pitch, resulting in less total
distortion of the screen image.
If it's too intense, move back!
If working too close to a large screen overwhelms you, move it
back on the desk...if you can. Some workspaces require that the
monitor be fairly close to your face, and in these situations I
usually advise a smaller screen or even a laptop. Select monitor
size according to the level of comfort you feel when reading the
smallest text you're likely to need. DOS text is generally
always the same size. Windows icon descriptions and cue card
text are about the smallest text you'll see in Windows.
Continuous-phosphor displays are found on monochrome
monitors such as older amber or green-screen TTL's and on and VGA
monochrome (black-and-white) units. The screen is fully coated
with phosphor, not broken up into tiny circular or rectangular
target frames. Framing isn't needed for the dots because there's
only one electron gun. There's no problem with two or more color
guns not aligning quite right and distorting the image.
For this reason, I and many others find a properly-adjusted
monochrome screen much less stressful to work with for long
periods of time. The old Macs with their small black-and-white
screens, and Ataris with Goldstar monochrome monitors (these were
also made for PC's and are highly recommended if you can find
one) are legendary for comfort in marathon computing sessions.
Monochrome: less stressful than color
Monochrome screens also emit less radiation than color screens.
Unfortunately, one very popular brand (Datatrain, made by Roland)
has a history of being difficult to keep properly adjusted. The
controls for screen size and sharpness are located inside the
Datatrain VGA-mono's case, making it difficult for the user to
adjust. Over time the image can get very fuzzy. It may also dim
as the picture tube ages, and the image can even change its
proportion or position on the screen. If you've noticed these
problems on a Datatrain VGA monochrome, have it adjusted by
someone who knows how to do the job. There are 600-volt currents
inside monitor cases and the adjustments must be made with the
power turned on. This is not a job for any but the most
confident and sure-handed do-it-yourselfer, and even then thick
rubber gloves are recommended. Adjusting and reassembling the
monitor shouldn't take more than half an hour for a competent
technician.
If you look closely at a monochrome screen, you'll see what
appear to be lines of phosphor which extend from left to right
across the screen with tiny black gaps between them. These lines
are created by the electron gun, not carved into the screen
itself. If you watch a technician fiddle with the monitor you'll
see that the size and position of these lines can be changed.
Dots on a color screen do not change in size or location.
Flat-screen tubes offer a more natural appearance
Flat-screen tubes are the latest rage in monitor ergonomics. The
idea behind flat screens is to create a more natural focus on the
screen itself. On a normal convex screen, the edges of the
screen are often noticeably farther from your eye than the
center. Ideally, the screen should be concave, so that all parts
of the screen are the same distance from your eye. The flat
screen is really a compromise. Flat-screen tubes are great for
people who work primarily with graphics applications or for those
who have a distinct taste for an accurate picture, and they can
help reduce reflective glare because there's less chance of glare
angle matching the reflection angle of a light source. But from
a health or stress standpoint, they have no real value. The
human eye doesn't necessarily prefer to have everything it sees a
fixed length from the eye. In fact, it prefers the positive
stress of change and a variety of focal lengths.
LCD screens: the crispest (and dimmest) of all
Finally, there's the LCD screen found on all but the costliest
laptops and notebooks. Most newer models are lit from behind the
actual screen, leading you to believe they're fundamentally
different in concept from an LCD screen. They aren't. If you
look at a laptop screen from a sharp angle, you'll see the
contents of the screen shift to what looks like a photographic
negative image. This is the same effect you get from an LCD
watch when you look at its display from the right angle.
The only light emitted from an LCD display comes from the
illumination which occurs behind the screen, and it's provided by
a low-power lamp, not a cathode ray tube. The screen itself is
usually divided into small squares, or liquid crystals, which are
supposed to match the size of a single screen pixel in VGA
graphics mode. Because these screens don't rely on light to
define the image, they don't suffer from sharpness problems
associated with tube monitors. The relatively low intensity of
the back lighting seldom results in excessive contrast which can
lead to eyestrain. In fact, the reverse is true. They can be
horribly difficult to see properly in any environment receiving a
lot of direct sunlight.
LCD screens aren't nearly as pretty as CRT screens (passive color
displays in particular tend to look washed out), and they are
very fragile. But they do offer the greatest sharpness of any
display type and the lowest overall level of user stress. What
they lack is the ability to use higher graphics resolutions than
standard VGA...and a reasonable price. Until recently, color LCD
screens prohibitively expensive for most users.
Screen resolution
A dot is a dot but a pixel can grow on you
There are many different levels of screen resolution, but there
is one fairly standard type which has been in use since
practically the birth of the personal computer: 640x480. This
means that there are 640 divisions from left to right and 480
from top to bottom, regardless of how many dots the screen may
have. Primitive graphics schemes such as Hercules and CGA had
high-resolution modes with approximately the same number of
pixels (the difference was that they allowed fewer color choices
for individual pixels), and even non-graphical monochrome screens
display text at about this degree of resolution.
There is a great deal of confusion over the value of the
newer SVGA and XGA resolutions, which allow for more than twice
as many pixels on the screen. What most first-time buyers don't
realize is that when Windows is run on a SVGA monitor in
high-resolution mode, it doesn't result in a sharper picture.
Instead, every graphical object (except screen fonts if the Large
Fonts option is selected) appears smaller, including text fonts,
icons, and window borders. This is because Windows maps icons
and window graphics to be a specific number of pixels high and
wide, regardless of how many pixels can be shown on the screen.
What higher resolution won't do
Higher resolutions won't take your jaggy screen fonts and add
extra pixels to make them smoother, not unless you select a
larger font size, which you can't always do. You can't select
larger icons either; they all have a standard number of pixels.
So rather than having a sharper picture with clearer fonts
and graphics, as you'd probably expect from super-VGA, you get
more screen to work with and everything reduced in size. This
size reduction prompts a lot of people to opt for large,
expensive 17 SVGA screens just to get the same degree of object
visibility they had on an old 12" to 14" VGA.
A VGA monitor with a .28mm dot pitch will look pretty much
the same as the same-sized .28mm SVGA monitor when both monitors
are running in VGA graphics mode. So why bother with SVGA at
all? What SVGA will give you is better graphic quality for
desktop publishing, artwork and photo retouching, compatibility
with the latest games, and better control and color for graphics
and multimedia software.
Virtually all new monitors and adapter cards support SVGA
If you use your computer mainly for word processing,
spreadsheets, databases and other non-graphical applications, you
probably don't need SVGA. It's hard to find color monitors today
which don't support SVGA, but you could save yourself an upgrade
someone might have told you that you needed.
In general, there's no reason to change Windows from its
standard VGA mode unless you want improved graphics resolution
for animation, real-time video, actual graphic images, or a
larger screen area to work with. If you're using an older EGA,
CGA or Hercules monochrome monitor, you should be able to get
something close to VGA's level of detail in all these modes, but
there will be fewer color options available.
Higher screen resolution and more colors will also reduce
the speed of your graphics display. An extra half-second wait
for screens to redraw on an old, low-memory VGA card might seem
like a nit-picky complaint, but when that wait occurs a hundred
times a day or more, as it does with serious Windows use, it
becomes a frustration that can usually be dealt with quite
inexpensively by upgrading only your video card. Consult with a
reputable hardware dealer before making any decisions, though.
Screen brightness
Not such a brilliant idea
I've often wondered why some people crank up the brightness on
their screens even when they have no visual problems. When I got
my answer, I started to worry about people who prefer a bright
screen.
Although it's by no means an accurate diagnostic indicator,
it appears to me that those who prefer a bright screen tend to be
overstressed, Type A personalities who prefer being bombarded
with sensation over a relaxed work environment. Long-term
exposure to a too-bright screen is harmful to the eyes and
nervous system, and just as addictive as any other artificial
sensory stimulant. These people may have weekend withdrawal
symptoms and not even know it. People with this preference may
not be suited to computer work at all; they may be more suited to
positions which offer them greater social stimulation, which is a
more natural stressor.
Brightness can boost emissions
It should go without saying that the brighter the screen, the
more energy the monitor consumes and the higher the emission
levels. I recommend the maximum level of brightness on any
computer being used for long periods be no brighter than a piece
of printed paper held next to the monitor. The optimum level of
brightness for picture-tube screens is as dim as is comfortable
while still being easily readable.
If you want a dramatic picture of how screen brightness
relates to emissions levels, go to a store which sells the TVM
line of monitors and ask to see one of these side-by-side with a
same-size monitor which does not have TVM's low-radiation
technology. (I suggest TVM since all of their consumer-level
monitors employ low-radiation technology.) The TVM will look
almost washed out compared to the other monitor, which may lead
you to believe that it's an inferior picture. But if you view a
nature scene on both screens, you may discover that the TVM's
image looks a little less artificial than the image on a
non-low-radiation monitor.
All monitors are missing elements of the spectrum
Neither is as pleasing as the real thing, because part of the
brilliance of nature comes from ultraviolet and infrared light
which are part of natural sunlight. We don't actually see these
wavelengths, but if you flash a picture on a screen using the
visible spectrum, from violet down to red; then flash the same
picture with ultraviolet and infrared added in; many people claim
to see a distinct difference in quality. Boosting brightness on
the monitor may be a reflex action we take in order to get a more
natural picture, but if so it's a futile response, because this
degree of natural effect is something you can't get on a normal
monitor.
Unless you're working with photographic images, you don't
need a high-contrast, ultra-brilliant picture to do effective
work. In fact, if you spend most of your day doing data entry,
you may find your performance enhanced by using the dullest,
dimmest picture you can stand. High contrast contributes to
eyestrain just as surely as an overly-brilliant screen.
Gauging your level of monitor stress
A simple test
There's a good test to see how stressed your eyes and nervous
system are. If you're relaxed and open, you'll be able to see
the individual dots on the screen as you work. On monochrome
monitors you'll see continuous lines. On laptop screens you'll
see tiny squares. The higher your stress level, the less able
you are to see them. Some people never see them, and some never
lose sight of them. How often you see them is less important
than whether you find yourself less able to see them than normal
in certain situations.
For example, if you only see them at the end of the day,
your job may actually be a stress-reducer for you, although as
I'll explain below the opposite might also be true. If they
disappear as the day progresses, you have a pretty good indicator
that your job is taxing you in some way. If they come and go at
various times of the day, you're fairly normal.
Nothing relaxes a body like exhaustion
There's a flip side to this which is worth noting. If you're
extremely overstressed, you'll also be able to see these lines
and dots more clearly. It's a trauma effect, the same sort of
heightened level of awareness that occurs with soldiers in
battle. It can often be difficult to tell whether heightened
sensory awareness is a sign of relaxation or heightened stress,
so be wary of making generalizations in regard to testing
employees in this fashion. Even heightened productivity can be a
sign of overstress.
When I first started working on this report, monitor-mounted copy
holders were more common than wrist rests. They're a good
idea...but maybe not for you. These copy holders are designed to
reduce refocussing stress by placing the document to be
transcribed or referred to on the same visual plane as the
monitor screen, and the same distance from the eyes. They work
wonderfully well for touch-typists; they're lousy for anyone who
still has to look at the keyboard. If you're a hunt-and-peck
typist. place your documents on the desk between the keyboard
and the monitor. If necessary, move the monitor back to make
room for the document. You'll probably find this a lot more
productive than using a copy holder.
Color your (virtual) world
Pleasing the eyes doesn't always please the body
Light text on a black screen is generally best for the eyes, but
just about everyone is moving toward graphical, full-color video
displays such as Windows, OS/2, Macintosh Finder and UNIX
X-windows. The more light which emanates from the screen, the
more radiation accompanies it.
Most, if not all, of these graphical operating systems
include utilities for altering the colors of virtually every
aspect of the workplace environment. It's usually worth doing,
because the default screen color configuration usually includes a
lot of white background. White uses more energy on a color
screen than any other color, so changing this color will almost
always reduce total emissions and lessen optical stress.
There are several schools of thought regarding which colors
you should use to replace white. It would be simple enough to
turn the screen image into a photographic negative, so that the
screen was mostly black, but unfortunately it isn't always
possible, and when it is, it doesn't always work. You may wish
to experiment with various color schemes to see which provides
you with the most pleasing look, the lowest total light output,
and the least distortion of what you see on the screen.
Alternative color schemes
Microsoft Windows, the most popular of the graphical operating
systems, comes packed with a wide range of alternate color
schemes. Some are novelty items, some are useful for laptop
computers, and all of them are highly configurable, often down to
the last screen detail.
Choice of screen colors will have a subtle but definite
psychological impact. Experiment with screen colors to see which
suits you best at certain times of the day. You may wish to
start the day with a mauve background to ease you out of your
sleepiness, switch to green at mid-morning, and then to a reddish
hue in the afternoon as a way of boosting your energy.
The Luscher Color Test
If you'd like to learn more about the psychological implications
of color, pick up a copy of The Luscher Color Test by Dr. Max
Luscher at your local bookstore. There are software versions of
the color test available, but the quality of those I've seen was
so poor that I do not recommend them in place of the book.
Computer-related emissions
No straws here
"Everything causes cancer. What's one more thing?"
I don't think I'll ever forget hearing my father say those words
as he butted his cigarette and hacked off another piece of pork
chop. As long as I can't forget, I can't forgive either. This
was the man I relied upon to teach me how to survive and prosper
in the great Canadian jungle.
I don't believe in the straw that broke the camel's back,
not when it comes to direct threats to the immune system.
Anything that stresses natural immunity is a threat to your
physical health. And make no mistake, whether it comes from
sound waves emitted by tires on the highway or from microwaves
emitted by the satellite dish on the roof of an office tower,
intrusive radiation of any type is a negative stressor.
Before I go any further on this issue, it's important to
distinguish between positive and negative stressors. Our bodies
have evolved to manage, thrive, and even feed upon certain types
of radiation. Our skin turns the sun's rays into vitamin D so we
don't have to saddle our livers with the job as mammals with more
body hair do. Sound waves resonate through our bodies and
provide essential stimulation for a wide range of functions.
Many believe we depend upon the electromagnetic radiation of the
earth for a lot of our mental functions and instinctive
reactions. The planet itself even emits a radiation which
appears to resonate with our cells.
We may eventually thrive on "harmful" radiation
Humans as a species are infinitely capable of adaptation. Over
the generations, we'll no doubt develop systems for coping, and
eventually for thriving, on the energy we currently release in
the form of radio waves, microwaves, and even emissions from
nuclear waste. But at the present time our bodies aren't built
to handle these things. So while the devices which create these
emissions provide benefits in some areas of our lives, the
emissions they produce create hazards in other areas. Denying
these hazards is like saying there's a free lunch.
Since we've come too far and grown too dependent upon
technology to shut it all down and go back to the land en masse,
the only responsible course of action left to us is to protect
ourselves against technology's hazards as they become known to
us. Turning a blind eye, or waiting for tangible proof of risk
in the form of illness in ourselves or a loved one, only passes
the responsibility for damage control and cleanup on to future
generations.
What I'm trying to say is that computer-related radiation is
a problem here and now, and there are things we can do to
minimize the damage.
Still in the dark ages
At this time our culture is still very much in the dark about
these issues. Little has been said publicly about
computer-related emissions, and the studies that the medical
establishment insists upon before accepting any new idea as truth
are so scarce that consciousness-raising on this issue currently
requires a lot of salesmanship.
If you work in a large office, you might want to gather as
much evidence as you can from
different sources about EM, ELF, microwave and other forms of
radiation, and lobby your employer to have the workplace swept
for hot spots every six months or so by someone with the proper
instruments. The more you can do to pinpoint and reduce sources
of excessive radiation, the more long-term health benefits you'll
reap. Healthy employees contribute to higher employee
satisfaction ratings, which is almost always good business.
Scalar-wave ELF emissions
The radiation no one talks about
After years of working with relatively low-powered computers, I
was a little bit hesitant to move up to the new 386/486 series.
It wasn't the power of the chip that frightened me. It was what
the chip did with its power. Central processing unit (CPU) chips
eat up a lot of power for something a half-inch square and
thinner than a fingernail. Some of that juice is wasted as
radiant heat...most 386 chips need their own cooling fans just to
dissipate this heat. But CPU chips also radiate in a different
way, a way most people aren't even aware exists.
Our planet emits something called a scalar-wave
electromagnetic pulse 6.14 times per second. This ELF vibration
permeates everything around us, and it is actually part of us.
Experiments in blocking this radiation resulted in immune system
changes in both plants and animals. Adding the frequency back
into the environment, even artificially, reversed the changes.
Altering the frequency resulted in still more changes.
Unnatural scalars: a fact of modern life
You've probably guessed by now that CPU chips emit scalar-wave
ELF emissions which are not in sync with the earth's natural
emissions. So do computer power supplies. And transformers in
video monitors. And a host of other electrical and electronic
devices. In fact, the slightest signal changes in the 60-cycle
electrical wave in your household electrical circuits will result
in abnormal scalar-wave emissions.
All chips from the old Z-80's to today's Pentium and PowerPC
chips produce a similar effect, albeit to differing degrees. In
general, the more powerful the chip the stronger the radiation,
and chips have been doubling in power every two years for the
past twelve. To make matters worse, the cards and accessories
included with today's PC's often use their own CPU chips, adding
to the overall effect.
The result is one more invisible bird flipped at Mother
Nature, and one more invisible stressor which most people won't
take seriously until their kids or their neighbors start getting
sick. The bad news is that everyone who uses a computer is
exposed to this electromagnetic radiation. The good news is that
technology exists today for negating its harmful effects, and
this technology is a one-shot purchase.
Protection does not come cheap
The equalizer is that this is not a mass-market product yet, so
volume hasn't brought costs down to reasonable levels. Right
now, effective ELF shields cost between $80 and $250 per person,
and larger units for a room or office cost upwards of $500. In a
few years they'll probably come down to the $20-$100 range and
become standard computer accessories as demand drives up
manufacturing volume and pays down the research and development
costs.
I don't know for certain, but I believe one of these devices
played a part in saving my life three years ago. At that time I
suffered the greatest crisis of my adult life. Although I had an
appetite, I was literally unable to eat more than small amounts
of food for nearly three years without severe physical
discomfort.
A testimonial of sorts
I carried an ELF shielding device in the form of a wristwatch
with me for two straight years, and the only physical illness I
suffered during that period was viral pneumonia which was
actually brought on by other stressors. In the two years
previous, I had suffered a viral or bacterial infection at least
once a season.
I damaged this device and could not afford to replace it for
about a year, and in that time my stress level skyrocketed again.
Within a week after replacing the device, I sank into a
depression which was, in retrospect. Much more welcome than the
wired state I had been in for the previous year. It was not at
all the effect I expected, which leads me to believe that the
device did not merely have a placebo effect.
I can't prove that the ELF shielding device contained in a
wristwatch which I wore 24 hours a day was responsible in any way
for preserving my health, but I strongly believe it was. I
believe it so strongly that I recommend these devices to my
clients, high cost be damned.
Medical foundation for ELF shielding
Some interesting test results
In tests conducted by Dr. Glen Rein at Stanford University
Medical School, cell cultures exposed to abnormal ELF emissions
showed hormonal activity that looked very much like the hormonal
changes that go along with clinical depression. Depression is
usually accompanied by reduced immune function. He also found
that the use of a Teslar ELF shielding device (one of the first
such devices created for the mass-market, and the device I used)
in proximity to the test cultures reduced the absorption of
depression-associated hormones by approximately 20 percent. It
also boosted immune production by a whopping 76 to 134 percent.
I believe these figures are too significant to be ignored, in
spite of Dr. Rein's disfavor among his fellows in the medical
community. Another frequently-quoted researcher is Anthony
Scott-Morley.
Another frequently-quoted researcher is Anthony
Scott-Morley. He discovered that ELF shielding devices seemed to
be a great help to people who demonstrate a measurable stress
response to computer terminal emissions. While his methods are
not orthodox in medical terms, the same measuring devices he used
in his research are now in use by consultants across North
America to diagnose sick buildings.
World Health Organization concerns
Regardless of how you may feel about the researchers or the
research, the fact remains that the World Health Organization
clearly stated its concerns regarding ELF emissions more than a
decade ago. Scalar-wave devices such as the Teslar watch, Cocoon
and Pulsor, among others, have been shown to filter and
counteract unnatural ELF emissions. They aren't cheap, but if
they only provide a fraction of the benefits suggested by the
results of Rein and Scott-Morley, they still represent one of the
best employee health investments I have ever seen.
In Canada, Essentia Communications is my preferred source
for the Teslar, Cocoon, Pulsor and other ELF shielding devices,
and the only reliable supplier I know of. They can be reached by
phone at (613)238-4437, by fax at (613) or by mail at 100 Bronson
Ave., Suite 1001, Ottawa, ON K1R-6G8. Request information on
specific products or types of products. They also have a
selection of books and reports relating to office and computer
ergonomics and environmental emissions.
Reduced emissions and energy savings
Power down for added safety and savings
One way to reduce ELF emissions is to turn off computers -- as
well as any other electronic devices -- when not in use. Turning
your system on and off throughout the day will reduce the life of
your hard disk and power supply, and probably other
heat-sensitive components as well. Who cares? In five years,
hard disks and motherboards lose 80 percent of their value. Even
if they still have half their useful life left, the energy
savings alone will make up for most of the remaining 20 percent,
and the reduced emissions are almost pure gravy. My
three-year-old TEAC hard disk has been turned on and off no fewer
than ten times a day since I bought it, and it's still running
smoothly with absolutely no errors.
Green PC
The new Green PC standard is a way of building reduced power
consumption, and thus reduced emissions, directly into the
hardware. Monitors conforming to this standard will turn off the
video signal and cut power consumption after a short period of
computer inactivity. Green computer circuit boards will also
automatically reduce their power consumption after a period of
inactivity. Both are excellent long-term investments thanks to
the power savings, and the reduced emissions are, once again,
gravy. Unfortunately, the green PC is not universal, so you'll
have to ask for these features when you buy.
While we're on the subject, worn fluorescent tubes also emit
x-rays. The grey spots where the fluorescent coating has been
worn away are particularly hot. Some lighting experts recommend
wrapping two inches of reusable lead tape around the glass at the
ends of all fluorescent tubes, and I agree with them. (Any
fluorescent tube which has begun to flicker should be replaced
immediately.) Ballasts and, according to my sources, unballasted
tubes also emit electromagnetic radiation not found with
incandescent or halogen lighting.
"Natural" fluorescents: not always the best choice
Proper natural, emission-free lighting is so expensive that I
have decided to forego all fluorescent lighting in my home and
workplace. Essentia, mentioned in the above section, is the only
supplier I know which provides pre-shielded, spectrum-balanced
fluorescent tubes, and the cost of these tubes to refit a large
office could run over $1,500 at current prices due to the low
production runs on these tubes and current recouping of RD costs.
If you're interested, contact Essentia about the OTT-lite and
related fixtures.
These OTT-lite tubes are also recommended to assist people
with SADS (seasonal affective disorder syndrome) who find their
functioning significantly impaired in winter months when direct
sunlight is less available.
Noise pollution
No fans wanted by this writer
As a writer, one of my biggest complaints about modern PCs is fan
noise. I can't stand unnecessary noise in any creative
situation. In most offices, computer fans are just one of many
sources of background noise, and eliminating this noise often
won't create a noticeably quieter environment. At home or in
older, non-air-conditioned offices, computer fans can be an
obnoxious intrusion.
What most users don't know is that the average PC in indoor
use in Canada doesn't need a fan nearly as badly as many
technicians would have you believe. I decided almost two years
ago to disconnect the fan to my cheap Taiwanese power supply. If
it only lasted six months instead of a decade, it was worth it
for the peace and quiet. It's still humming along trouble-free
more than two years later, although I left a little extra space
at the back of the case for ventilation, not a job the average
user should attempt on their own.
Giving the components room to breathe
The key is not just to disconnect the fan, but to remove as much
of the case surrounding the power supply as possible so that
heat-sensitive components are still protected by airflow from
vents in the case. Sometimes you'll need to remove the fan
completely to allow for direct airflow through the case's fan
vents.
The new 486 and Pentium chips are often affixed with a fan
designed to cool the main processing chip, even though the
manufacturer claims they're not needed. If cooling concerns you,
you can also get a device called a heat sink (a ribbed metal
device which drains away heat from the chip) to do the job
noise-free, and at about the cost of a chip fan. Every new 486
or Pentium chip will last longer if affixed with some sort of
cooling device, but they're not necessary. A good half of the
486 machines I've serviced have neither chip fans nor heat sinks,
and few have displayed the flaky behavior which is supposed to
accompany the lack of a cooling device.
There's a risk involved, but for many it's worth it
Once again, if the hardware only lasts five years instead of the
expected ten, who cares as long as a little more peace and quiet
makes you happier or more productive?
If a technician tries to convince you that the fans are
absolutely essential, ask them why they usually don't put chip
fans in notebook computers, and can't put them in subnotebooks.
Even my own tech, someone whose expertise I respect highly, was
surprised that I've had so few problems.
More than you ever wanted to know about
Floppy disks and formatting
Formatting is one of the most arcane and bizarre computer
concepts the average new user is likely to encounter. Why should
you need to write to a disk before you can write to it? You
don't need to do that with cassettes or videotapes, so why a
floppy disk or hard disk? Here's some mythbusting and
mind-opening information on how it happens and why.
The purpose of formatting
The four common IBM-compatible disk formats
A little history
About special formats
Telling them apart without a program
About disk stretching
A very stern warning
The purpose of formatting
Starting from what you know
Whether you know it or not, you were using formatted electronic
media long before you ever laid hands on a computer. The fact is
that cassettes and videotapes use their own type of formatting.
Tape decks have tape guides which hold the tape firmly in place
so the head never has to move. The narrow area of the tape with
the magnetic signal never wavers more than a few thousandths of
an inch from its appropriate position no matter how fast the tape
rolls. And the magnetic strength and area on the tape where
information is stored has to follow a precise set of rules. All
of these factors combine to define the format of an audio tape.
Old-style LP records had a format as well. The groove had
to be a specific width and depth, and there could only be so many
revolutions per disk. These and other factors combined to create
its format.
Now imagine the problems associated with disk drives. Think
of a floppy disk as a vinyl record album with no groove. The
needle will slide all over the surface if there's no groove to
guide it. An unformatted floppy disk is just like a record with
no groove, and the drive heads are like tone arms with no
needles. Formatting is a way of creating a magnetic groove for
the drive head to ride in.
Data farming
Let's try a different analogy. Think of a disk as a big, round,
open cornfield. If there are no rows, no furrows and no seeds,
you can wander around planting at random for days. You'll plant
too many seeds in some areas and too few in others. Your field
will look very spotty at harvest time, and it won't be an
efficient harvest.
Formatting a disk is like making between 40 and 80 circular
furrows for the corn seed. It's like drawing a plan on the disk
for the most efficient harvest. Think of writing data onto the
disk as as seeding the cornfield. When you read that data back
into the computer, that's your harvest.
A disk drive is like a robot harvester. A robot can't think
on its feet. It has to know where and how to plant for you, and
where and how to pick the corn. When you format a disk, you
create furrows for the robot farmer to follow. You create marks
that tell this robot where to place every single chunk of data,
up to one and a half million of them on a single floppy disk, and
where to find the data later.
The four common IBM-compatible disk formats
Hard disks do their own thing; floppies can't
Most users never need to know more about hard disk formatting
than the fact that hard disks are formatted. Hard disks
generally come preformatted from the dealer, and anyone needing a
special hard disk format can probably acquire the expertise on
their own. From this point on, we'll discuss floppy disk
formatting exclusively.
There are four common types of disk format used with
IBM-compatibles. Each type corresponds to a different type of
disk. The four formats are known as 360k double density, 720k
double density, AT format high density, and HD format high or
quad density. There are actually many more types of formats, but
these are by far the most common. (Actually, there is really
only one truly standard format at this time: 1.44Mb HD.
Here's a chart which describes the format types and the
types of disks which use them:
Disk Types And The Formats They Use
Disk sizeApprox. storage sizeUsual labelOther names
3-1/2 720,000 bytes MF2DD DSDD
3-1/2 1,440,000 bytes MF2HD DSHD, HD
5-1/4 360,000 bytes M2D DSDD
5-1/4 1,200,000 bytes M2HD AT, DSHDM2D: A 5-1/4
double density 2-sided floppy disk holds 360K. (Strange as it
might seem, not all floppies are claimed to have two
sides...another logic-defying truth about computers.
M2HD: The AT-style disk is a 5-1/4 high density 2-sided floppy
that holds 1.2M of data.
MF-2SD: A single-sided 3-1/2 double density disk isn't even
designed to be formatted double-sided (IBM-compatibles can't
normally even read single-sided disks), but they will usually
format properly and hold data, although they're not likely to
last as long as the...
MF-2DD: ...double-sided, double density 3-1/2 diskette. The
boxes say they'll hold up to a megabyte of data, but even the
Ataris and Macs with special formatting software can't get them
to reliably hold more than 840k of data.
MF-2HD: A double-sided, quad density (high-density) 3-1/2 disk
has a capacity of 1.44M. Once again, some claim they'll hold up
to 2M of data, but that's really pushing it. The highest
reliable format is approximately 1.7M. Microsoft uses disks of
this extended capacity for distributing their new Windows 95
software.
A little history
For those who care...
The original IBM-style microcomputer diskette was a 5-1/4 disk
that held 180,000 bytes of data, also known as a 180 kilobyte
disk or, most commonly, a 180K. (Experienced users usually refer
to disks by the number of K (kilobytes) or M (megabytes or megs)
they hold, as in a 720K or a 1.2 megger.
At the time these first became popular, floppy disks used by
most microcomputers were a full eight inches in diameter! You'll
still see these dinosaurs in pawnshops, Salvation Army stores and
the hands of students working on some of these outdated systems
in computing courses. 180K was a ton of space in days when it
was rare to find programs larger than 20,000 bytes. Not any
more, not now that Windows, Mac and OS/2 have "cracked the DOS
memory barrier". Some newer Windows and OS/2 programs are
several million bytes in size. Imagine installing Windows 95,
which comes on 25 1.44Mb floppies, from about 200 180K floppies
instead. It's ludicrous. The technology had to keep up.
So the next standard was the same size 5-1/4 disk which held
360k. They were a major improvement on the 180k disk because
these new disks were able to store data on both sides of the
disk. The older disks weren't nearly as well formulated, and if
you attempted to write on both sides of many of these disks, the
magnetic signal would drift through the plastic film and
contaminate data on the other side of the disk.
Expanding by factors of two
The next development held twice as much data (computer
innovations always seem to be of the twice-as-much variety, which
makes sense when you consider that all computing is about 0's and
1's, or multiples of twos). It was a 3-1/2 disk in a sturdy
plastic housing, fully protected from dirty fingers thanks to a
nifty sliding aluminum door. These disks were not just smaller
than the 360K, but denser, using higher-quality film and magnetic
particles to permit the greater storage capacity in the smaller
space.
They were originally available in both single-sided and
double-sided formats, and the double-sided disks held 720k.
These were, and still are, called micro floppy disks. The Apple
Macintosh, Commodore Amiga and Atari ST computers all used the
smaller, denser style of disk, as did the new portable PC's and
some higher-end IBM clones.
AT format: a dead issue
Next came the AT disk, a 5-1/4 disk which held 1.2 million bytes,
nearly four times as much as the 360k disks used on most
IBM-compatible PC's. These were nicknamed AT disks because they
first gained popularity when IBM introduced its faster AT-series
computers in the mid- to late-1980s. They have also caused
enormous confusion for thousands of novice PC users, because
unless these disks are clearly labelled high density or AT
diskettes, there is absolutely no way for the average user to
tell them from a normal 360K diskette without attempting a
format. You can even format a 360k disk to a full 1.2Mb under
DOS, because neither the hardware nor the software can tell the
two apart. (This type of formatting is very unstable, however,
and is definitely not recommended.)
The older 5-1/4-size disk was kept for this new format
because that was the IBM disk capacity standard of the day.
Newer AT-class disk drives could read and format the common 360K
disks as well as the newer high density 1.2Mb, but it had its
problems. Users soon discovered that 360K disks
formatted or written to by earlier AT-style floppy drives were
unreadable by most normal 360K drives. This problem all but
disappeared with drives made after about 1992, but then 360K
drives have pretty much vanished too. The problem was sorted out
too late for most users.
The magnetic media is manufactured in a different way on the
1.2Mb disk, which accounts for its greater storage capacity on
the same size disk. You might say the AT disk is to the 360k
what metal-tape cassettes are to low-noise cassettes.
Today's standard
Last but not least is the current standard, the 1.44 megabyte, or
1.44Mb disk in the sturdy 3-1/2 case. This disk is almost
exactly twice the capacity of the old-style 3-1/2 720k disk,
thanks once again to improvements in the quality of the film and
magnetic particles.
The engineers learned from their mistakes when they designed
the 1.44Mb disk. Just as 360K disks won't format reliably to
1.2Mb, 720K disks will eventually suffer serious problems if you
try to format them to 1.44Mb. A high-quality floppy drive using
top-quality blank disks might be able to pull it off, but you'll
still have to cheat the engineers.
DOS won't let you try this "stretched format" unless you
drill an extra hole in the case of the 720K disk. 1.44Mb disks
have a second window, which the disk drive checks before it will
allow a 1.44M format to be attempted. Using a drill for this job
is not recommended because it creates plastic shavings which can
damage the surface of the disk if they get inside the plastic
shell. Some manufacturers created special "clean punches" for
turning 720K disks into 1.44M disks, and computer nuts still
argue about the safety of this practice. More on this in one of
the later topics.
Each disk format has its own code. It's an industry
standard used by all reputable manufacturers, and you'll see the
code written on the box, on the label, or right on the disk
itself in some cases. C-60 tells you a cassette is a 60-minute
compact cassette, and an MF2DD tells you it's a micro-floppy, 2
sides and double density.
The next standard is already five years old
Not many people know it, but 2.88Mb 3-1/2 disks have been around
for almost five years without really taking off. They are still
so uncommon that the prices of these disks make them unsuitable
for the average PC user, and in a 1993 version of this article we
predicted that by this writing (late 1995) almost every new
computer would be equipped with a 2.88Mb floppy drive. They
should be, but for reasons unknown the idea never caught on
enough to allow the high production volumes of drives and disks
that would have made this format a viable consumer option.
It's possible that the next floppy disk standard won't be a
floppy disk at all, but a magneto-optical disk. Iomega
manufactures a very popular device called a Zip drive that holds
100Mb of data on a 4" disk no heavier than a floppy, and it's
entirely possible that this could be the next storage standard.
(Truth to tell, it's usually software publishers who set the
standards for floppy disk popularity. People only started buying
1.44Mb drives when publishers began releasing many of their
larger applications in this format. Since most larger apps are
released today on CD, no major publisher has felt the need to
promote or endorse a new floppy format.)
About special formats
Getting more than you bargained for
There are a few free and shareware programs which claim to be
able to format 360k diskettes to 720k, and add a minimum of 10
percent more space to any diskette. They'll do the job all
right, and we've used special extended formats for years...on our
Atari computer. There is a price to be paid if you try to use
special formats on an IBM-compatible. The problem is that some
newer IBM-compatible motherboards won't read these disks no
matter what you do with them. Your extended-format diskettes may
become useless if you upgrade from a 286 with Phoenix BIOS to a
486-DX%80x86 with AMI BIOS.
Two years ago we advised not to use extended format
diskettes unless absolutely necessary. They work, and they save
time and money, but in the long run new BIOS revisions could
cause your computer to crash with spectacular results when you
loaded the program designed to allow special formats.
At the time, there was only one viable widely-available
program for creating and reading these extended-format disks: a
free German program called FDFORMAT.EXE.
Fortunately this is no longer true. There are now several
programs designed for safely and efficiently creating, copying
and reading these extended formats both in DOS and Windows
3.1/3.11 and for Windows 95. Among these programs are HDCOPY,
WinImage and CopyQM, all widely available from the usual archive
sites (SimTel, SimTel Windows and CICA/Winsite).
Dealing with DMF format disks
At this time the most common extended-format disk in circulation
is DMF, or Disk Media Format, used by Microsoft for distributing
their new Windows 95 software. We were unable to find a single
program which accurately formats a DMF-formatted disk, but more
and more programs are able to copy these disks all the time. You
can back up your Windows 95 software on floppy disk...you just
need a program designed to handle the high disk capacity. Our
personal favorite is HDCOPY.EXE. This is a free program
available from many locations on the Internet, and you'll find a
link to programs designed for this purpose either on the Software
Resources Page or on our Web site.
One final note about special formats'
We recommend using only new, unformatted floppies for copying and
creating extended-format diskettes. The reason for this has to
do with the way the magnetic signature is laid down on the disk.
When a disk is reformatted at a new capacity, the old magnetic
signature is not completely erased. This means that the disk
formatted with the new capacity is likely to be somewhat less
stable and the integrity of the data will decay at a faster rate.
How much faster we don't know, but it only seems logical that
using unformatted floppies for copying and creating extended
format diskettes is likely to produce a disk with a longer life.
Telling them apart without a program
Two disk sizes
This is a 3-1/2" floppy disk.
This one is a 5-1/4" floppy.
They're
both called floppy disks because the actual disk material inside
the covering is made of of a flexible material. Hard disks are
so named because the circular disk inside the disk's airtight
case is made of rigid metal.
Two disk capacities
You can tell high density 3-1/2" disks from old-style double
density disks in two ways. High density disks always have HD
embossed or painted on the disk shell beside the metal door in
the lower left-hand corner and have two tiny holes at the top
instead of just one. If the disk doesn't say HD, it's almost
certainly a double density disk.
Unfortunately, there is no way to tell by looking at a 5-1/4
disk whether it is a double density or high density disk. It
helps to mark a small HD or AT on the disk before you format it
so you'll be able to tell later which density it is.
What type of disk should you use?
It's particularly important to select a regular disk type when
you're just starting out in computing. Over the years, every
enthusiast builds up a collection of anywhere from 100 to over
1,000 disks, and using a regular disk type for all your backups
and personal disks makes economic and organizational sense.
Which disk type makes the most sense to use? Unquestionably,
1.44Mb 3-1/2 floppies. They're practically the only game in town
any more. If you don't have a drive that handles this disk type,
get one.
That doesn't mean your old 720K floppies are useless. They
can be used for storage, and if you have Windows 95 you have the
advantage of an operating system that writes data to these
floppies at speeds far faster than good old DOS 6.x and Windows
3.x. Just keep in mind
Your 5-1/4" disks? Copy the data to new 1.44M diskettes if
the data is important and keep both the copies and the originals.
If the data is irreplaceable and uncopiable (perhaps the disks
are copy protected), store the disks in zipper bags to prevent
oxygen damage to prevent decay and wrap the bag in aluminum foil
to protect against accidental magnetism causing any wear to the
disk. Speakers, microwave ovens and even kitchen blenders have
been known to affect the flux density of the disk. (Flux density
is the strength of the magnetic signal that carries the data.)
Just don't use them for long-term storage unless absolutely
necessary, since they tend to be the most prone to wear and
damage, and 5-1/4" drives are becoming scarcer all the time.
And just in case you were thinking of turning your old 720K disks
into 1.44M disks, read the next topic. It just might change your
mind.
About disk stretching
There ain't no such thing as a free lunch
What's the real scoop on turning 720K disks into 1.44Mb disks?
Well, the following is a text taken from a widely-circulated BBS
file on the topic. It's a good warning on how not to pinch a few
pennies. Fortunately this is one fad which appears to be going
out of fashion, but there are still a few supporters of the idea
floating around.
"This is in response to suggestions I've heard on how to
format 720K diskettes to 1.44 megabytes. I've seen various
articles on how to modify disk drives to allow this and I have
seen ads for a device that punches holes in the diskette case
to fool the drive sensor. All these tricks are a bad idea.
You risk losing your data if you format a 720K diskette to 1.44
megabytes.
"The reason is the nature of the diskette media. Data is
written with a stronger magnetic field on the 1.44 meg
diskettes. Using such a strong field on a 720K diskette makes
the bits on the disk too strong for the medium, and they will
gradually migrate out of position as they are attracted to and
repelled from each other by their magnetic fields.
"The 720K diskette is designed to be formatted and written
to with a magnetic field strength of 300 oersteds. The 1.44
meg diskettes are high coercivity media; they require a
magnetic field strength of 600 oersteds, twice that of the
lower density diskettes. The high capacity diskettes are less
sensitive to magnetic recording (that's why they require a
stronger magnetic field). This allows the bits to be recorded
at twice the density, or twice as close together. Because the
medium is less sensitive, the bits will not interfere with each
other. On a more sensitive medium, such as that used for 720K
diskettes, the bits must be farther apart to eliminate
interference with each other. That's why you cannot get as
much information on the disk."
Another warning
The book Upgrading and Repairing PCs, by Scott Mueller (Carmel,
Indiana: Que Corporation, 1988), contains this warning:
"You should not actually store any important data on this
incorrectly formatted disk because the data is recorded at
twice the recommended strength and density. Over time, the
adjacent magnetic domains on the disk begin to affect each
other, causing migration of the domains due to the magnetic
attraction and repulsion effects .... Over time, the disk
seems to erase itself. The process may take a day, a week, a
month or more, but the result is pretty much inevitable." (page
316)
The author goes on to say that incorrectly formatting the
disk also ruins the disk because you cannot then reformat it to a
lower density. When formatting to a lower density the drive
writes with a weaker current, which cannot overwrite the
high-volume information now on the disk. The only solution is to
use a bulk eraser.
We say don't waste your time. The disk will seem to format
correctly, but you may be sorry later when your data fades into
the magnetic sunset.
A very stern warning
It is not uncommon for new DOS users to accidentally format their
hard disks and lose every bit of data they contained. You can
recover the data from a reformatted hard disk if you've taken the
proper precautions with Norton Utilities, DOS 6.0 or a similar
package with hard disk protection software, but if you didn't, it
could take someone with a lot of technical skill at $25 an hour
minimum to get your files back for you.
So until you become skilled with the formatting procedure,
be very careful not to type a C or a D at any time during the
format procedure. If you really want to be sure you don't
accidentally format your hard disk, learn how to format floppies
from Windows using the File Manager's Disk menu, which contains
procedures for formatting and copying floppies. Windows 95 users
will find their formatter by double-clicking the My Computer icon
and then right-clicking on the icon for their floppy drive or
drives.
Part 1: Service and support
As an IBM-compatible owner, there are some cold and often
unpleasant facts you must face. Access to the widest range of
products and services comes at a price: a lack of true
standardization everywhere except for the operating system, and
unfortunately Windows is not always kind to less-than-expert
users. Owning a PC today is a lot like owning a car, and just as
it pays to know a good mechanic, good computer support is just as
important. Here's a guide to finding -- and keeping -- that
support.
Introduction
A consumer's guide to after-sale support
When and who to call for help: a reference card for service
and support
Learning to be a teacher: a guide for would-be tutors
Midwifing your small or home business into the digital age
A consumer's guide to after-sale support
This section is designed to give you an overview of some of the
services available, their costs, and some of the ground rules for
finding and keeping good help.
What's out there
Let the buyer beware
The crunch: what it costs
Where to find the right people
What you can and can't expect from your support professional
When and who to call for help:
a reference card for service and support
When should you call in professional help, and who should you
call? You'll have to balance factors such as your sense of
adventure, the risk of making the problem worse by attempting to
fix it yourself, and the limits imposed by your budget against
the actual urgency of the problem. There are no hard and fast
rules, but the general guidelines offered here should help you to
make a more informed decision.
The 'local hero'
Bulletin boards, internet and online
services
Vendor product support lines
Hardware and software vendors
Private tutors and on-site
troubleshooters
Classroom training
Computer clubs and special interest
groups
Computer support: an introduction
Shamed into stupidity
Just as every driver ought to know how to change a tire, fill the
tank and add a quart of oil, every computer owner needs a few
basic skills. Among them are knowledge of disk, file and
directory structure; the difference between needed and unneeded
files; how to recover from a hard disk crash; and how to install,
configure and remove new hardware and software.
Sure. And perhaps you wouldn't mind carrying the rest of
the world on your back as well.
Personal computing in the 1990's is as much an emotional
minefield as a grand adventure. All too often the industry sets
us up to feel helpless or foolish, and either infers or tells us
outright that we need skills which aren't necessary to make
productive use of the machines. Either that or they promise
support and ease of use that simply doesn't match real world use.
It's little wonder that when things go wrong -- as they
inevitably will -- users often feel like babes in the woods.
Even if you know where to turn, you might still be unsure whether
you should even ask for help. Who can you trust? How do you
tell good service from bad? Is it even fair to ask for help with
trivial problems? What is it okay for you not to know?
The days of D-I-Y computing are gone
A decade ago, a certain level of programming expertise was
considered essential to keeping your PC up and running. Not
today. Operating systems have gotten much easier to learn and
use. But in the process they've grown so complex that even
professional troubleshooters frequently call in outside help.
This help usually costs money. Most users will eventually
have to give up on the idea that once they own a PC, the only
maintenance they'll ever need will be hardware repairs. You
can't go it alone any more.
It's been decades since our culture has faced a collective
learning challenge similar to what we face with the personal
computer. PC's have a lot in common with cars in terms of their
complexity, the changes they're making to our culture, and the
increase in opportunities they provide to us as owners.
Old logic and new problems
But that's old news. Problems start where we try to apply the
same logic to using our PC that we apply to owning a car. The
context is similar, and it seems to make sense, but we don't have
the long cultural history with personal computers that we have
with the automobile. We don't have injury prevention laws,
service standards or generations of learning to fall back on.
The truth today is that computer buyers are usually far less
equipped for first-time ownership than new drivers.
For example, the software used by the car -- our streets and
highways -- doesn't need manuals aside from a reference card for
highway lines and road signs. We're taught practically from
birth that we learn to drive from qualified instructors, leave
auto maintenance to qualified servicepeople, and let trained
public employees take care of road maintenance.
We have our whole childhood to watch and learn from other
drivers. We were not taught to haul ourselves out of ditches,
rebuild engines or fix potholes in the street.
Unfortunately, many new users believe they need to achieve a
similar level of self-sufficiency on their computers -- and do it
on their own -- if they don't want to appear as total idiots. In
the early days of the automobile, basic mechanical and road
maintenance skills were required in some parts of the country.
Those who didn't have them faced the same dilemmas first-time PC
owners face today: lack of quality service, fear, misinformation
and dissatisfaction with their new tool.
That all changed in the 1930s and 1940s when cars became a
cultural institution. We'll see similar changes occur with
computers in the next few years, but in the meantime computing
will be a lot like car ownership was sixty years ago.
Driver training: an ongoing process
The biggest difference -- and it's an important one -- is that
once you learn to drive, you can drive almost anything. Until
interfaces become truly standardized, driver training on your
computer will be an ongoing process, not a one-shot deal. You'll
have to upgrade your skills with each new operating system
upgrade or program you install.
We may not have a Public Works Department of PC Maintenance
to rely upon, but that doesn't mean you have to take on
maintenance chores yourself.
In fact, you probably shouldn't even try unless you truly
want the skills. In just a few years operating systems have
grown from a handful of files totalling less than a megabyte to
hundreds of files totalling dozens of megabytes. The days when
the average user could reasonably be expected to troubleshoot and
maintain their own system have vanished, probably forever. Like
cars, the beasts have grown beyond user-serviceability.
Simply put, don't expect to know everything or achieve
complete computing self-sufficiency! You'll be a lot happier
with your computer, if perhaps a little poorer, when you accept
that you need and deserve expert help in maintaining your machine
and keeping up your skills.
The key to happiness: when in doubt, delegate!
When faced with problems that you'd rather not deal with on your
own, give them to someone else to deal with. And keep in mind
that when you buy a new system, at least part of your total
investment will have to be devoted to maintenance, training and
troubleshooting.
Computer support: what's out there
At $25 to $50 an hour for telephone support, $30 to $75 an hour
for shop service, and anywhere from $15 to $100 an hour plus
possible travel charges for in-home training or on-site service,
professional tutoring and technical support is not exactly
dirt-cheap. But then neither is a good mechanic. How well --and
how long -- do you think you could keep your car on the road
without one? Get used to it...computer ownership is becoming
more like car ownership every day.
How much do you want to learn?
Trying to acquire maintenance skills on your own computer, reach
peak efficiency with your applications software, or survive
without occasional expert guidance is a lot like doing your own
auto repairs. It's risky, often costlier than expected, and
usually too time-consuming to be practical. Face it, you're
going to need help. Probably more than you think.
There is so much to know about computers and software and
the way they interact that no one person can keep up with more
than a small fraction of what's out there. Most people spread
their auto maintenance among a brake and transmission specialist,
a tire dealer, a general mechanic, a tune-up specialist and a
body shop. Computer support is moving very rapidly toward the
same degree of specialization.
Business users need a cable specialist, a network
troubleshooter, a service depot, two or more operating system
hackers (one for their programs and another for the network
software), a pair of tutors (there's usually a personality clash
with one employee that hampers a lone tutor's efficiency), and
possibly a programmer on call or on account at all times. Even
casual home users should have the numbers of at least two
reliable tutors or system hackers.
Let the buyer beware
A tough job made tougher
When you select a licensed mechanic, you have at least some
assurance of competence. Don't expect the same security with
computer support. The industry is young and prone to
inexperience and immaturity. Even the most competent
troubleshooters occasionally make mistakes and encounter problems
they don't understand. Different support pro's deal with this
problem in different ways.
There is also a powerful mystique surrounding computers that
infects all but the humblest professionals from time to time and
stops them from admitting it when they're wrong, trusting their
judgment when they're right, or calling for outside help when
they're in over their heads. And still others know a great deal
about a great many things, but they fear their own knowledge and
the possibility that they could do less than perfect service for
their client. What if their advice was made obsolete by a new
product that they never heard about? It probably was, but they
can still get the job done. What if there's a better solution to
the problem they're facing? They're probably is, but those who
know it are likely charging twice as much per hour.
Then again, the same things could be said about auto
mechanics.
Have a Sharp Eye
Choose your support professionals with the same breathless
caution and keen eye for personal integrity you'd use when
checking out a mechanic for the family car. Programming skill,
certification, degrees and number of years' experience are no
substitute for deductive logic, communications skills, the
creativity to solve problems never seen before, and the guts to
admit when help can't be offered.
You'll find plenty of people who fill the first set of
requirements, but our friends and clients report severe shortages
of everything in the second list.
At this time the market is wide open to technojocks with
lousy people skills who bill themselves as tutors, and reckless
fly-by-nighters with consultant on their business cards. This is
a field where anyone with a few skills and enough nerve can hang
out a shingle and collect $50 to $100 per hour from people who
probably won't even know if they're getting good service.
This industry-wide epidemic of mistrust and self-doubt has
had a profound effect on the way otherwise competent support
pro's conduct themselves. It's a sad commentary on the industry
that at this moment in time, you probably shouldn't expect total
honesty from a dealer or a support pro until you're a paying
client.
This lack of honesty often has less to do with integrity
than it does with good people defending themselves against a bad
situation. The truth is often so demoralizing and the market so
confusing that many consumers will accept a seductive lie over
painful facts.
Who would you rather give your business to?
Who would you rather give your business: someone who guarantees
that their systems are 99 percent trouble-free? Or someone who
tells you that regardless of what precautions they take or who
you buy from, your brand-new system has a one in ten chance of
needing service in the first six months? How much more likely
would you be to fall for the lie if you were told that the
industry's own estimates are
closer to one in five?
The sad truth is that the latter number is probably the most
accurate, and until they've been burned once, most people will
choose to buy from the person who withholds the whole truth.
This is just one of the ethical dilemmas faced by support
pro's and vendors attempting to establish themselves in today's
market. The next few years will almost certainly see increased
demand for stricter licensing, a bevy of lawsuits, and -- as
operating systems become increasingly sophisticated -- even your
neighborhood tutor may need (or at least want) to carry
malpractice insurance.
Free support: often worth even less than the cost
To illustrate this point, there seems to be an increasing
number of vendors and consultants who offer free advice as a way
of pulling in future business. Much of it is useful, but we've
heard people offer free advice to novices that involved hardware
configuration and software hacking at depths where novice users
can cripple their computers.
If free advice from a friend, neighbor or helpful vendor results
in damage to your data or hardware, you usually have no recourse
except through the courts. On the other hand, if a paid
professional troubleshooter can't help you, at least they'll know
how to restore your system to normal. No competent support pro
will leave you worse off than you were when you called for help.
The crunch: what it costs
Here's an idea of what you can expect to pay for support of these
types at various levels. Please keep in mind that any figures
offered here are based solely on the authors' experiences in the
Vancouver, Canada area. There should be little difference
between the dollar amounts in Canada and the US, but rates may
vary widely from one locale to the next.
Tutors
Classroom training
Troubleshooters
Contracted support
Shop service
The tutoring market ranges from college students willing to teach
operating system basics and productivity applications at beginner
to advanced levels in their homes for as little as $10 per hour
to on-site commercial trainers specializing in a single program
who may charge upwards of $75 per hour.
Classroom training also varies widely, from as little as $5 per
session for introductory lessons in DOS, Windows and
telecommunications offered by schools, clubs and service groups
to upwards of $40 per session for small-group training in
specific programs. The quality of classroom training varies as
widely as individual tutoring. You're less likely to find an
incompetent instructor teaching a computing class than you are to
run into a fly-by-night tutor, but you're more likely to get less
learning for your time in a classroom setting, particularly if
each student isn't provided with their own computer.
Troubleshooters usually bill their services at $40 to $150 per
hour depending upon their level of expertise and specialization.
You can often negotiate lower rates for long-term or contract
service and on-account support, particularly from self-employed
independents and newer consulting firms hungry for business.
Contracted troubleshooters and trainers hired through service
depots, training centers and hardware vendors cost anywhere from
30 to 100 percent more than independents. The extra cost of
contracted troubleshooting usually includes greater assurance
that your problems will get solved one way or another.
On the other hand, contracted trainers don't usually come with a
guarantee that the human interface will be user-friendly. There
doesn't seem to be a way of insuring the people you hire will
have good people skills.
Shop service for your hardware problems ranges from $30 to $65
per hour, once again depending upon the level of expertise
required by the job and whether the service tech is independent
or subcontracted.
Where to find the right people
Matching the person to the job
Although the components are highly sophisticated, computers
themselves can be assembled by anyone who has the organizational
skills and dexterity to put together a model railroad. Most
tutors and troubleshooters can perform simple jobs like
installing CD-ROMs, additional memory, modems and new video
cards; tracing loose connections and restoring crashed hard
disks; and they'll often do it at a lower price than a retailer
or service depot.
If fast turnaround is critical to you, and your budget can't
support using a commercial service depot, the best way to insure
prompt hardware service is to buy your hardware from a small
mom'n'pop or basement vendor with a good reputation for customer
service. Small size usually translates into greater ability to
respond quickly to individual emergencies.
There are many more tutors working independently than there
are support pro's. It doesn't necessarily make finding a good
one any easier, but it often means you'll wind up paying a much
lower rate than you will if you go through a training center.
Private computer tutors with strong communications skills and the
patience to work well with novices are still in the minority.
A company position is no guarantee of skill
Many of the best support pro's don't work for the hardware
vendors, training centers or service depots who get the lion's
share of the training business. Be aware that many of the worst
are also independents, usually because no one else will hire
them. If misjudging someone's competence has cost you time or
money in the past, you may have better luck finding someone
through a medium-sized consulting firm or training center, where
they will have been screened for competence.
People often complain that there aren't enough good people
in the field to serve everyone who needs help. The fact is that
there are thousands of competent, compassionate and often
brilliant techs and tutors who are barely eking out a living.
You simply have to know where to look. Unfortunately, the best
fishing holes are seldom the best-known.
University and college notice boards are often filled with
ads from service depots, students offering tutoring, vendors and
private consultants. Many independents advertise in newspaper or
magazine classifieds, and the best people for providing
compassionate, individualized service are often the worst at
writing good ads for themselves.
If all else fails, ask for referrals
Larger training centers and consulting firms can be located
through the business section of daily newspapers or through
computer publications. Local colleges may keep phone numbers of
tutors on file for their students, and they'll often give out
this information to the general public. If all else fails, ask
friends and colleagues who they have found helpful. If you need
help for your business, talk to contacts with other firms in your
field to find out who they're using and how they like the
service. There are so many bad reports floating around these
days that any good report is a lead worth following up.
Regardless of who you select, check the firm or individual
through the Better Business Bureau. Business users should have a
non-disclosure agreement ready to be signed by anyone working on
their
office systems. It's also a good idea to ask your prospective
support pro for client references, although some reputable
consultants working in sensitive fields may refuse to supply
them.
What to expect from your support professional
Don't be seduced by paper
There are at least three ways to do just about everything in a
graphical operating environment such as Windows or Macintosh's
System/Finder, and there are more hacks for command line
environments such as DOS and UNIX than people have been able to
count. It's unlikely any one person can teach you the best way
to do everything you want to learn. If you're really keen on
becoming an expert, you'll eventually need several tutors. But
the same is true in just about any field.
Don't be seduced by degrees and certificates. software and
hardware change so rapidly that a two-year-old certificate is
practically useless today except as a status symbol. It's more
important to find someone with whom you can communicate in
comfort than someone with a mountain of knowledge.
You'll retain more of what you learn if the atmosphere is
casual and intimate. One of the most common complaints about
private tutors is that they work far too quickly and expect too
much of their students.
The most valuable quality in a support person: adaptability
You can reasonably expect a private tutor to be able to teach you
any program you may wish to learn...provided they have access to
a copy of the software to train on themselves and the will to
learn it, and most have the will.
As long as they're far enough ahead of you to teach what
you're ready to learn, it doesn't matter how much experience they
have with a given program. We know several consultants and
tutors who have trained many people -- and trained them
effectively -- in programs and procedures they had neither seen
nor used until the night before the lesson.
Most professional tutors have enough basic operating system
knowledge to handle maintenance chores on home systems. Their
services are generally billed at one-half to one-third the cost
of a full-fledged troubleshooter, making them a good first choice
for service for PC users on a tight budget.
You have the right to expect that the service you pay for
translates into increased knowledge and productivity. Far too
many support pro's overload their clients with information and
leave them feeling more confused and less capable than when they
arrived. That's not just bad service. It's irresponsible
teaching.
The blurred line of free support
Most tutors will provide at least some telephone support between
lessons as a way of helping clients to cope with the information
overload most people face at one time or another in the learning
process. Many consultants and troubleshooters will encourage you
to make between-service calls when you run into trouble, but some
charge extra for this. Ask beforehand to make sure you have this
kind of access to help when you need it. It's an important
aspect of both regular maintenance and any ongoing training
program, and worth the cost of a retaining fee.
Don't expect anything for nothing...
On the other hand, you can wreck a relationship with a
talented support pro by taking
advantage of the situation. If you're concerned that you might
be asking for too much between-visit support, ask them how they
feel about it. There are no standards for this, and most support
pro's have only their own gut feelings to go on. Often it's not
until they've been thoroughly used by a demanding client that
techs and trainers start to impose limits on telephone support.
...although you might be surprised
Don't expect to call a support pro for the first time and get
even the simplest question answered over the phone for free.
Many will offer this sort of help, especially as a way of
demonstrating their expertise to a prospective client, and most
independents have done this at some point in their careers. The
free advice phase usually ends the moment they realize that the
same people who expect no-charge telephone support won't return
the favor by giving them cash business when they need real help,
or when paying clients keep them too busy to handle an hour a day
of pro bono work. Expect to be billed for $20-40 even for
fifteen minutes of general question-and-answer. It's worth it if
it solves your problem.
If you need this kind of help on a regular or semi-regular
basis, you can usually buy blocks of telephone support time
ranging from one to ten hours, usually for a little less than the
person's regular rate.
The "bag of tricks"
Most consultants and many tutors carry a bag of tricks with them
which includes updates, bug fixes, handy freeware and shareware
utilities, perhaps a few of the latest shareware games, and
preferably (but, alas, not legally) emergency copies of the
operating systems they work with most. These are usually
provided as a client courtesy or to make troubleshooting easier
for the technician and less costly for the client.
Some troubleshooters also carry dozens of patch programs,
bug fixes, driver files and updates for operating systems and
popular programs such as Word and CorelDraw, and popular hardware
such as ATi video cards and Sound Blaster audio cards. Most
service-oriented retailers and service depots maintain large
libraries of these files.
But no one, not even the largest software repositories on
the Internet, keeps current copies of every update and bug fix,
so don't be surprised if you're directed to your dealer or the
manufacturer for bug fixes and updated drivers.
Also be aware that more and more support pro's are refusing
to work in offices that don't have legally registered copies of
all their software, including a registered copy of the operating
system for every computer.
"You are a registered user, aren't you?"
In fact, unless you're using an old or dreadfully obscure piece
of software, don't be surprised if a technician refuses to
troubleshoot your system if you don't have the original
installation disks. After all, consultants aren't perfect, and
if they make a mistake, they might have no way of reinstalling
your most critical software.
On the flip side of this coin, many support pro's still
believe it's okay to set you up with pirate copies of
applications software and utilities. But ask yourself this: if
they're willing to cut corners with the law, what corners will
they cut with your precious data?
Some consultants may refuse to work on your system until you
update your software or acquire a bug fix, and they may charge
for their time if you expect them to track it down for you. This
is not an unreasonable demand, especially since they didn't write
the software or sell it to you, and in fact acquiring a bug fix
program on your own may eliminate the need for service
altogether.
You should expect your support pro to have diagnostic
software to uncover basic problems and, with some exceptions, the
appropriate files for rebuilding your operating system if it has
been trashed. You can also expect to be charged for their time
even if they don't have proper diagnostic software, provided that
they have helped or offered advice in other areas.
A guarantee of service...not results
Few consultants or tutors guarantee results. It's fair to insist
that any consultant who can't help you refer you to someone who
can if they expect to be paid for their service.
During the service call, you may be surprised to see your
support pro use your telephone to call a vendor's product support
line for help. Don't tear up their cheque! You're paying as
much for their ability to ask the right questions of the right
people as you are for what they actually know. A capable
consultant will know how to pump a support person for information
in seconds that might take you half an hour to acquire.
Many consultants will refuse to give estimates for
troubleshooting no matter how well you describe a problem over
the phone. This is because almost everyone's system is
different, and they have no way of knowing what's in store for
them until they actually see your system. It's not uncommon for
fixes which normally take ten minutes to take ten times longer on
systems with strange configurations or hardware anomalies.
Expect the first visit to be costly...and worth it
It's even more common for them to fix one problem only to
discover several others which the client didn't even know
existed. Unless you specifically state that you only want
certain problems fixed, you can usually expect your first visit
from a support pro to last several hours. An ethical support pro
will not want to leave you in a vulnerable position, and
vulnerabilities tend to accumulate over time on any heavily-used
system.
Get a second (and preferably a third) opinion if you suspect
that you're being talked into service you don't need, but get
them quickly in case your system really is an accident waiting to
happen.
Speaking of second opinions, be aware that it's rare to hear
the same answer to a technical question from two different
support pro's. In many cases they'll both be right. Many common
problems have more than one solution. Your task may be to decide
which of the two answers feels most comfortable or makes most
sense to you.
Going with your own needs
You'll find the same inconsistency from person to person at every
level, from the tools they use to the philosophies that drive
their techniques. Here are two examples from an experienced
consultant:
"I'm a firm believer in backups, and I'll even insist upon a
full backup before commencing work on a fidgety system I
believe could crash at any moment. I make backups a priority
with all my clients. But I know consultants who won't even
raise the issue unless the client expresses
a concern.
"These consultants probably have clients who have gone for
years without ever losing a file and others who suffer
catastrophic data loss every time the seasons change. I have
clients who have wasted five to ten minutes a day for months,
even years, and never needed a single byte of the data they
backed up, and others who have been very glad they were
meticulous in their backups.
"When it comes to training I set no achievement goals for my
students. I prefer to let them tell me what they want to know.
Many tutors believe a certain level of proficiency is critical
and insist that their students acquire specific skills before
allowing them to choose what they want to learn.
"Who's wrong? Certainly not the client. It's up to the
support pro to determine the level and type of need for each
individual client rather than set hard and fast rules about how
any activity should be conducted."
A job more demanding than it might seem
But the fact is that no one short of a saint or a yogi can
provide this level of service day in and day out, and there are
precious few of either in any field. In order to function at
this level most consultants would have to limit themselves to two
hours of actual service per day, refuse to work on any day when
they felt a little bit off their game, spend no fewer than four
hours a day doing nothing but upgrading their skills, and boost
their hourly troubleshooting and tutoring rates to $150 or more.
Not many will pay that kind of money even for top-drawer
service, so most competent career support pro's rely upon a
system, a philosophy and set of tools and techniques which get
them through most situations.
Any method of providing service that relies upon systems and
specific techniques is doomed to fail a good percentage of the
time, but it's still the best we have. And the results are
usually far better than no service at all.
The 'local hero'
The least expensive -- and all too often the riskiest - course of
action is to call in a friend, neighbor or relative who knows
computers. These local heroes tend to be called upon for a lot
of free advice, so exercise courtesy and good judgment.
It's a good idea to offer some sort of compensation if you
need more than a few minutes of their time. Let them know that
you won't mind being referred to a professional for things that
can't be easily solved over the phone.
Call a friend or neighbor who 'knows computers':
when you've lost a file or can't run a program that ran fine
yesterday.
Remember that you're dealing with a talented amateur, so
don't expect more than a fifty percent success rate. Very often
these kinds of problems require expert troubleshooting.
when you want a few ideas on good entertainment or leisure
software.
We choose our friends based on mutual interests, and friends
are much better advisors on leisure software which will be suited
to you than a salesperson or consultant. They are seldom good
people to ask about productivity software.
when you want to learn how to use a bulletin board or a new
game.
These are fairly basic skills which can be taught in a few
minutes. Don't expect them to help you learn WordPerfect or
teach you operating system maintenance; these are jobs for
professional tutors or third-party manuals.
when a game has you stumped.
Bulletin boards are often a better source of game hints. If
hint files aren't available for download, try leaving your
question in a gamer's echo or general chat area if you don't mind
waiting a few days for a reply. Services with online chat, or
Internet Relay Chat -- if you can access it -- can give you
real-time access to the answers you need, and live connections
with people who don't know you or care about you in the bargain.
Think of game hints over the net as an element of the game
itself...part of the fun will be finding out whether the help is
actually helpful!
Bulletin boards, Internet and online services
All-purpose support that might be cheap and effective
If your problem seems fairly basic and you don't mind waiting a
few days for a solution, you might be tempted to post a cry for
help on the technical or help echo of a local BBS (bulletin board
system). Be aware, though, that the boards are not always
well-policed for accurate information, and this sort of advice
could get you into more trouble than you had to begin with,
particularly if you're not experienced enough to know bad advice
when you see it.
Help echoes on BBS' and the local nets can be havens for
know-it-alls who have just enough technical knowledge to be
downright dangerous. Moderated USENET newsgroups tend to be much
more disciplined and better policed for accuracy. Even
technicians and retailers have been known to post bad advice on
public echoes, and if you suffer damage as a result of this
advice you have virtually no recourse.
Don't overlook BBS' and online services as support tools in
other areas, though. One of the best preventive maintenance
practices you can adopt is insuring that you keep on top of the
latest updates and bug fixes for your software and hardware.
Online support in the corporate world
Companies with more than one computer can save themselves
headaches and money on service calls by having an employee do a
regular monthly online check for updates and patches for the
operating systems, device drivers and applications software used
on all office systems. It's a fairly easy job now that most
major publishers have Web sites, and increasing numbers of
manufacturers and publishers use BBS'' and online services to
distribute bug fixes and program updates to their customers.
Among them are Creative Labs and Gravis (sound card drivers
and software); WordPerfect and Lotus (printer and video drivers);
ATi, Trident, Cirrus and Paradise (video drivers); Logitech
(mouse and other device drivers); Hewlett Packard and NEC
(printer drivers); Microsoft, Apple and IBM (updates and bug
fixes for operating systems and applications); Apogee, Sierra and
Microprose (bug fixes for games and applications).
BBS operators: computing's "backyard mechanics"
BBS' can be just as useful for their owners as they are for the
advice of users or the files they offer. Amateur bulletin board
operators tend to be among the most knowledgeable users you'll
ever meet. Most of them don't want the responsibility of being
paid professional troubleshooters, but if you can find one who
will accept your business, it's a gift on par with finding a
first-rate backyard auto mechanic.
Vendor product support lines
In many cases you paid for this service when you bought the
software or hardware, but as prices continue to fall on
productivity applications more and more vendors are moving toward
a pay-for-play system. You may be limited as to the number of
calls you can make or amount of support you can receive without
paying.
Regardless of how customer support is set up, expect to wait
on hold for anywhere from several minutes to an hour or more if
you want to talk to a live operator. Several hours is not
unheard-of. This can be excruciating if you don't have a speaker
phone and something to occupy your time while you wait, and
doubly painful if you discover that the support person can't help
you.
Be prepared for the worst when you pick up the phone. In my
experience, you'll get satisfaction only about two tines in
three. If you need better service than this, many service depots
and independent troubleshooters provide on-account telephone
support for a wide range of situations.
Never call a product support for game hints, help with
software you borrowed from a friend, for public domain software,
freeware, or for shareware you haven't yet paid for unless the
documentation specifically states that you may do so.
Call vendor support lines:
when a specific piece of software or hardware is giving you
problems and there is no obvious solution in the manual.
when your problem has your local hero, your dealer, tutor
and/or troubleshooter stumped.
when repairs, adjustments and software troubleshooting haven't
helped.
when your best hunch tells you that the problem is related to
their product and you need help right now.
Hardware and software vendors
Expect to either wait for an answer or be required to take your
system to the shop when you use dealer service. You may get a
few freebies, particularly if you've been a regular customer, but
don't take them for granted!
Call your dealer or vendor:
when you have problems with the hardware or software which
came with a system you purchased from them, and the system is
still covered under their warranty.
Your dealer may still refer you to the manufacturer's or
publisher's product support line for further help. They may also
refuse to help you for free if you have added hardware or changed
software since buying from them. You can't hold them responsible
for problems they didn't cause with products they didn't sell.
when you've just bought a CD-ROM, modem, motherboard or other
component and can't get it to work.
If you're not already familiar with the hardware, pay to
have your dealer install and set it up. This also goes for video
accelerators, new monitors and even printers, mice and joysticks
if you're not comfortable with installing new software. It goes
double for additional hard disks, tape backup systems, memory
upgrades and audiovisual interfaces.
Private tutors and troubleshooters
Call a tutor or troubleshooter:
for help in learning how to create and manage files and
backups.
It takes more time to teach these skills than you should
reasonably expect from a friend or neighbor.
when you want your custom menus changed or updated.
Your local hero might consent to do this for you, but
customized menus are an optional accessory, like automatic
transmissions. Don't expect to get them for nothing.
Programmers will charge thousands to create custom menus for
corporate systems; PC's are a lot simpler but it's still dull
work.
when the manual makes no sense to you.
All too often software and hardware manuals seem to be
written by a committee of bureaucrats. A tutor with compassion
can bridge the communication gap between you and your computer in
ways no manual can.
when you purchase a first family computer.
Find a tutor patient enough to deal with the whole family at
once and gather everyone around the computer while they show you
its stuff. One of the nicest features of whole-family training
is that no one needs to take it too seriously or work too hard at
it. Almost without exception, if one member of the family has
forgotten a particular command, another will have remembered the
needed information. Family training seems to work that way if
everyone is interested.
when you need your hard disk pruned.
Everyone accumulates useless data over the years. Trimming
this excess can extend the useful life of a shrinking hard disk,
and anything you can do to postpone an upgrade will save you
money. Don't attempt this job on your own unless you've made a
full backup of your hard disk and you're prepared to do at least
one complete restoration. First-timers almost always scrub a few
essential files by accident. Windows programs are particularly
intrusive and difficult to remove without the help of uninstall
software or a qualified expert. (By the way, removing icons from
Program Manager does not remove the software from your system.
You have to manually erase the files.)
when you need your system cleaned and tuned for efficiency.
Tutors and consultants accumulate large collections of
performance and comfort tips from colleagues and clients, nuggets
they'll gladly share with a paying client. Any competent support
pro can leave the average system functioning more efficiently
than they found it. Physical cleaning isn't a major concern with
today's PC's. Most systems will only need cleaning, tune-up and
file pruning once every year or two.
when you need advice on productivity applications.
A wrong choice in this area will cost you lost time, money,
and perhaps even a promotion or your job. Be very wary of advice
from anyone who is not familiar with your field or with current
trends in business software. Even the advice of colleagues in
your own industry should be taken with a handful of salt unless
you're sure that they thoroughly investigated their options
before offering an opinion.
when you don't know which hardware or software is causing a
problem.
Most problems are software-related, even when they look like
hardware errors. Vendors tend to
be less qualified to fix software problems than troubleshooters
and professional tutors.
when you find two or more programs exhibiting the same erratic
or unwanted behavior and the problem is not happening with a
brand-new system.
If this sort of problem crops up on a new system, refer to
your dealer for warranty service.
when you've purchased a new system or done a major upgrade and
want things set up for maximum efficiency and ease of use.
This sort of work is best performed by a qualified tutor or
consultant. It won't be long until we have support pro's who
specialize in nothing but optimizations. It's okay to watch them
work and have them explain their modifications as long as you
don't mind paying for the extra time this usually takes. Ask to
have them record what they've done in a text file so that anyone
working on your system in the future will have a record of what
was done in the past.
when you want to learn how to navigate the Internet.
You can pick up the basics in no time if you've already done
some BBSing, but making effective use of the net's intricacies
and available resources takes time, patience, and probably some
expert guidance on software, sites and etiquette. The resource
guides alone are literally hundreds of printed pages in length,
and not even our First Train for the Internet can truly see you
as a unique individual and focus specifically on what you want.
It can take you a long way, but there's nothing like your own
private guide for really getting to know the sights.
Classroom training
Sign up for classroom training:
if the social experience is worth at least as much to you as
the training you'll receive.
Adult students tend to retain very little of their classroom
training in comparison to in-home tutoring. This is frequently a
poor choice for advancing your computing skills.
if a job you want requires certification.
Even then, you'll probably score better on tests by sleeping
through classes, learning hands-on at home with a good
third-party manual, and getting a few advanced tips before the
exam from a private tutor.
if you can't find two good books on the software or procedures
you want to learn.
Why two books? Because the second will usually offer useful
explanations for aspects and procedures covered poorly by the
first. Why books over a human trainer? Because hands-on
training on your own system with a good third-party manual is
usually more effective, more efficient, and a lot cheaper than
classroom training.
if you learn better as an anonymous observer than through
personal attention.
Some people seem to have difficulty responding to one-on-one
instruction but thrive in a classroom setting. If this sounds
like you, by all means opt for classroom training over private
tutoring. It's your time and money, and it's up to you to get
the most from it.
Computer clubs and special interest groups
SIGs and computer clubs are private organizations and not
consumer resources, although increasing numbers of them offer
fee-based services to the general public. If you want the
benefits, expect to pay or them with your time, knowledge, or
donations of money or supplies. It's through member efforts that
these organizations survive.
Join a computer club or special-interest group:
when you can't find a consultant or tutor who can match your
level of expertise.
Once you've achieved a high degree of proficiency in a
particular application, tutoring on advanced subjects may be
difficult or impossible to find. At this level, special-interest
groups (SIGs), either on BBS' or through computer clubs are your
best hope for finding a talent pool and knowledge level to match
your own.
when you can't find help elsewhere for your particular needs.
Larger centers support a number of clubs dedicated to users
of old or unusual hardware and operating systems, everything from
the ancient Adam and TI99-4A home systems to FORTRAN and COBOL
programmers to artificial intelligence and genealogy. Check the
back pages of your local computer magazine or newspaper for
listings of SIGs.
Learning to be a teacher: how to bring a novice up to speed
painlessly
This section is specifically designed for those who find
themselves in a position to help others. Chances are good that
that's going to mean you. The Internet is still doubling in
population every few months, and by the time you have a pretty
good idea of what you're doing, you won't just be a competent
Internet user...you'll be a net veteran. Unless you're reading
this well into 1998, you can almost count on being called upon to
help someone else.
You owe it to yourself, those who ask for your help, and
your fellow Internet travellers to not take this responsibility
lightly. Here's a guide to assisting new users which you should
find most useful. Just don't expect your "students" to be
grateful...the best teaching leaves the student both competent
and feeling like nothing is owed to the teacher.
Learning to be a teacher
Twelve tips for smoothing out the learning curve
Learning to be a teacher
Less like a handshake than a hazing
Many new users still find their first experience with a personal
computer less like a handshake than a hazing. but there are ways
to make the introduction easier.
I'm not incompetent. I'm not perfect, either. But that's
no consolation to someone whose most expensive toy has just
rejected a software transplant for reasons only a programmer
could know.
I don't know everything. And I can't find a software
solution to every problem. Try telling that to someone who was
sold more computer than they need by a salesperson who swore that
the software you want is out there.
The fulfilled promise of cheaper, more powerful computers
has created millions of new home and small business users in a
very short period of time. The market for service, training and
software support is simply too large to be filled by the
available talent. The field is so diverse and growing so quickly
that no one can keep current with more than one or two small
areas of the industry.
This creates problems for users and service professionals
alike.
The geek mystique
Computing is still haunted by an air of mysticism and a false
belief that anything is possible. Too many new users are being
hurt by self-styled experts who can't admit the limits of their
knowledge and professionals who have a stake in perpetuating myth
and misinformation. The result is frightened users who don't
know who to trust, know-it-all novices who believe they know more
than they do, and lost productivity and enjoyment for everyone
concerned.
It's the odd week when I don't meet someone who has been
soured on computing by a trainer who didn't have the patience to
deal with a beginner or an advertiser whose claims of reliability
and support weren't matched by performance. I spend a lot of
time rebuilding people's confidence, deflating overblown egos and
generally cleaning up after irresponsible professionals and
know-it-all hackers.
It's the rare computer veteran who doesn't have an arsenal
of new-user horror stories. Graeme Bennett of The Computer Paper
even elevates some to the status of urban legends. Gerry Craig,
who for several years assisted novices in the Vancouver area
through a users' group mentor program, used to wade through other
people's messes on a regular basis.
I personally know very few people who didn't survive at
least one unpleasant episode early in their computing careers,
but here are three which demonstrate the depth of the problem.
A few horror stories
I have a small business client who let a friend help them upgrade
from DOS to Windows. But they didn't just get Windows. They got
the much more complex Windows for Workgroups, plus Norton
Utilities, Stacker, Microsoft Publisher, Adobe Type Manager,
SpeedCache...virtually every IBM-compatible power tool available
at the time, all to use WordPerfect and a straightforward DOS
database. These utilities were integrated so deeply into the
system that they couldn't even format disks from DOS any more.
I was brought in to add some shareware and remove unused
files from the hard disk. The
system went down with a stroke of the Enter key. Almost
everything was pirated, so we couldn't even reinstall the
software. The person who set up the system had left these people
completely dependent upon his expertise, and he still blames me
for messing up his friends' business.
Last summer I encountered was a password-protected menu
installed by the neighbor of an elderly client. This fellow
needed help changing the menu so he could add new software.
Unfortunately the neighbor moved away without giving him the
password. My client was left with the unpleasant choice of
learning a new menu system or living with the same six programs
he'd had for over a year.
This man didn't know me from Adam. His neighbor had no
business padlocking his computer, but why should he believe that?
How could he know that I wasn't angling him for business? After
all, his neighbor had helped him for free.
The Great Equalizer or Great Humiliator?
Well-meaning hackers are one thing, but what really smolders my
collar is that more than half of my clients who tried the idiot
books felt even more incompetent after reading them. And it's
nothing short of tragic when MS-DOS' online help system still
doesn't tell users how to run programs or install new software.
Computers were supposed to be the Great Equalizer, not a way to
humble less technically-minded people.
All of us who have been around computers for more than a
year are eventually going to be called in as consulting physician
when one of our friends or relatives buys their first computer.
This is the best place to start undoing the bad publicity, to
relearn good habits we've forgotten over the years and to give a
new user the kind of introduction we wish we could have had.
Twelve tips for
smoothing out the learning curve
How to make someone's first experience with a PC easier than it
was for you
Here are some guidelines for de-stressing the learning process
and making the computing experience less like having a new
problem and more like owning a new toy.
1. Never, ever allow someone to be dependent upon software
they don't own. If you're installing an unregistered operating
system, that's software theft and you deserve every panicked
phone call you get when the system has problems...and eventually
every system has problems.
2. Force every new user to learn the two-backup habit
unless they're too poor to afford all the floppies or tapes. One
set should be stored off the premises so it won't be lost if
anything happens to the computer. Create a clean boot disk for
use if problems occur with the hard disk, and remember that even
the new Microsoft Backup is far too cryptic for novices. Stick
with simple file backups which a new user can restore from a
batch file, and use the backup time to teach the basics of file
and directory structure everyone eventually needs to know.
3. Keep the boot setup simple and avoid third-party
software. The average user needs only about a half-dozen
standard device drivers and TSRs to keep the system running
smoothly. New users will willingly sacrifice speed and a bit of
memory for simplicity and reliability.
4. You won't be the only person to service the system in
its lifetime, so avoid cryptic program setups and complex menus
which others may find tricky to change. MS-DOS users should
stick with simple batch menus. Windows, OS/2 and Mac users don't
need third-party front ends until they gain experience.
Any special software you add to the system should be
commented in the AUTOEXEC.BAT, CONFIG.SYS, or a SVC_READ.TXT file
saved to the root directory. Make allowances for gaps in others'
knowledge or you may leave your student vulnerable to problems
only you can solve.
5. Give your charge room to grow by carefully housecleaning
unneeded system files and obsolete software. If there's plenty
of room on the hard disk, configure Delete Sentry or a safe
delete system to protect against accidental data loss.
Casual users don't usually exit Windows properly. It's not
uncommon to accumulate ten megabytes of .TMP files every month.
Adding...
DEL C:\DOS\~*.TMP
...to AUTOEXEC.BAT will eliminate this clutter permanently.
6. Start by teaching what the user wants to know, not what
you think they need to know. Avoid housecleaning chores until
they can run and install new programs. The first lessons most
home users need are executing programs, printing and reading text
files, modeming and processing compressed archives.
7. Idiot-proof the system. I often make three copies of a
program with three different names so the user will be sure to
remember one of them. Renaming programs to reflect their
functions helps most users do more with less training.
Add the root and UTILS directories to the PATH statement so
that any needed programs can be run without path syntax. Install
simple, one-touch utilities -- graphical if possible -- to take
the place of the clunky disk and file functions built into most
operating systems. List all of these changes in the README file
so they can be restored later.
8. The goal of effective training is to teach people how to
take care of themselves. Once a user knows how to install
programs and save data, teach them how to uninstall software and
identify what can and cannot be safely erased. Users usually
need one-on-one help with modem configuration, downloading
procedures, processing compressed archives, formatting documents
and passing parameters to programs, no matter how thorough the
manual might seem.
9. Panic-proof a new user by creating a few harmless
crashes and system errors. There's seldom any reason to panic
unless the whole system collapses, but error messages of any kind
scare the daylights out of most novices.
10. Take your diplomatic duties seriously. If your student
wants to modem, introduce them to BBS ethics and rules of
behavior. If they plan on trading software, it's your job to
make them aware of the differences between shareware, freeware
and illegal pirated software. And shame on anyone who instills
virus terror in a novice. Trojans and viruses are never more
than a rare annoyance to anyone who regularly backs up their
data.
11. Remember your first month at the keyboard and treat
your charge accordingly. Talk in terms and analogies the user
can understand, let them set the pace, and never leave them
hanging between lessons with half the skills needed for a task.
In return, you have the right to expect appreciation for your
efforts and to limit the number of panicked phone calls you'll
accept. Good teachers don't have all the answers; instead, they
teach their students how to find their own answers using the
resources available.
12. If your charge is still confused and desperate after
the eighteenth emergency phone call this week, remind them that
there's always the manual.
Ah yes, the manual...but, as they say, that's a nightmare
tale for another dark evening.
So you want to computerize your business...
This first-person article, prepared in 1994 by one of our editors
for magazine publication, still has validity even in 1996. We
hope this comes as help before-the-fact rather than a reminder of
what you should have done. This is a long article; you may wish
to print a hard copy of this topic.
Ever have one of those months?
My client wanted a turn-key package, a complete invoicing and
bookkeeping system designed for a small trucking business whose
employees had never used a computer before. No problem, I
thought. I quoted software, setup and training for under a
thousand dollars. It looked like a low-stress job I could finish
in a week or two.
Ten hours and two dozen phone calls later, I began to sense that
the fairly simple needs of my client were not so simple in the
eyes of small business bookkeeping developers. Ah, well, it was
just a matter of plugging away until I hit the right package.
Thirty hours and twenty software packages later I began to feel
rather panicky. Every package was missing one or two essential
features. I began mumbling none too quietly about the
mid-four-figure base costs for custom database programming and
clients who expect a Jaguar at Chevy prices. My client started
asking why computers were making his life more difficult, and I
didn't have a good answer for him.
A colleague had told me I was insane to accept the job for the
money involved, but I knew there were dozens of excellent
shareware programs available for business use. I wasn't beaten
yet. I stepped backward, to complete DOS freight management
package I found on a local bulletin board. I talked the client
into accepting the extra training time it would require as a DOS
program as the tradeoff for complete integration at a low price.
But when we called the developer to register the program and find
out how to uncripple it, he actually refused to sell us the
software! Seems there was too much money to be made from custom
programming to bother with piddling $150 shareware fees. I was
tempted to call the FTC.
After ninety hours and seventy -- yes, seventy different software
packages -- we're talking major compromise. My client has lost
another two days this month to manual invoicing, and I'm out two
weeks' work which I can't even bill.
This is not the home front
I usually work with home users, and when they ask me whether I
have a shareware program which can do this or that, I always say
yes before they can tell me what they need. And I've never had
to eat my words. But I have learned that my experience with the
trucking firm is fairly typical in small business consulting.
Functional you can get for peanuts. Useful costs more...and
takes time. Nobody really understands why, but it does.
Don't get me wrong. Without question, it's easier now to
computerize a business than it has been at any time in the past.
You can exchange data freely between most programs at the touch
of a button...and the buttons wll even tell you their functions.
Training time is shorter, interfaces are slicker, everything is
faster and the variety and quality of data you can maintain and
generate gets better all the
time.
But we don't live in Oz...not yet. Going digital is not as easy
as clicking your heels together and saying "there's nothing like
RAM" which is what a lot of the advertising seems to suggest.
The obscurity and diversity of small business software is why
good consultants make excellent money and work constantly.
The transition will be a lot less frustrating if you know what
you're getting into ahead of time and remember where you're
starting from, which in most cases is babe-in-the-woods
territory. A day or two of homework might sound like a lot when
you can shop for hardware in less than an hour with nothing more
than a newspaper and a telephone, but this effort can save you
hundreds, perhaps even thousands of dollars in consultants' fees
and trim untold man-hours from your transition period and
eventual workload.
It will also maximize the efficiency of your transition and help
you make better use of the professionals you do employ. And
unless you're already a proficient computer user, you will need
professional help at some point.
Twelve tips for midwifing your
small business into the digital world1. Know what you need
Hardware is usually easy to select and won't cause you too much
lost time if you overbuy or underestimate your needs. Not so
with software. Write down exactly what you want your business
software to do, and in as much detail as you can. Apply your
imagination to your needs. Your software must be able to grow
with your business.
2. Brace for disappointment
Don't expect to find a complete turn-key package available
off-the-shelf for your specific business. Chances are that any
ready-made package will lack a few vital features which will
require either additional software, manual record-keeping or the
inability to merge your data in one or more areas. It's a joyous
occasion to discover a popular, inexpensive accounting or
database package at the local disk-and-drive shop which does
everything you need, and for the time it takes to check it out,
it can't hurt to start with the obvious. But be prepared for
disappointment. You'll probably find few local retailers up to
meeting the specific needs of a small business. In my
experience, salesman are often lacking even in basic product
information.
3. Expect some extra homework
If what you want isn't available locally, check out the small
back-page ads and classifieds in your field's trade publications.
There is an astonishing range of specialty software available for
just about every type of business, but you won't find these
packages advertised in computer publications. Most of them are
only available by modem or mail order. In many cases you can
purchase them directly from the developer, meaning easy access to
someone who knows the software inside-out, and usually the option
to have a custom package created for much less than you'll
probably pay for a package created from scratch.
Make sure the developer can provide you with a demonstration
version of the product before offering your credit card number,
because you may not always be able to get a refund if the
software doesn't perform up to expectations. It's a simple
matter for the developer to hack a crippled demonstration version
of a program which demonstrates all of its features without
allowing you to make heavy use of it. If the developer won't
provide this kind of support, look upon this as a sample of the
support you
can expect as a user of their product and shop elsewhere.
4. Network
If your field isn't hyper-competitive or paranoid about
operating procedures, find out from your competitors what they're
using and how well it works. It might also pay you to see if
anyone else in your field is in the market for software. If you
find you need expensive specialized software or a custom
creation, the developer might offer a reduced rate if you can
throw two or more clients their way at one time.
5. Take your deadlines and toss them
Don't expect to convert your business in a week unless you or
your staff are already computer-literate. Moving from manual to
computerized record-keeping is like switching from a bicycle to a
car. The rules of the road are the same, but you'll need time
and training to harness the increased power at your command. The
conversion will probably require you to learn new skills or think
differently about your business. You might even want to warn
friends and loved ones when the changeover starts, because a
degree of mental or emotional disorientation can often be
expected. This is no joke, but a fact of life when you attempt
to force a lot of new learning on an old body.
This disorientation can be lessened considerably with a little
attention to your own learning style or the styles of employees
who will actually be using the system. In my experience,
entrepreneurs in particular are extreme people who generally fall
into two categories as students, nibblers and crammers, with
little room for middle ground. Nibblers prefer to learn one
simple skill at a time and master it before moving on. Crammers
prefer to be overwhelmed with new information. They want to know
everything yesterday and don't mind making mistakes or walking
around with mud-brain until the new learning settles. Most
consultants and tutors are more effective with one of these
types, and you might need to quiz the teacher to discover a
consultant's individual strengths in this area.
Even software has features better suited to the different types
of students. Nibblers tend to be intellectual types who prefer
the straight-line simplicity and rigidity of DOS or UNIX.
Crammers tend to be more creative and sometimes they can't even
function in a non-graphical environment.
Be prepared to experience as many unpleasant surprises as
pleasant ones as you feel out the performance of your hardware
and software, and if you've been sold by a hardware dealer who
promised you that the software you need is easy to find and dirt
simple to learn, brace yourself for a few shocks. Hopefully you
won't experience them, but it's more likely that you will.
Hardware reliability improves every year, but if this is your
first new computer keep in mind that you stand about a chance in
six of needing service in the first month. IBM-compatibles in
particular are at least as recall-prone as new cars.
You can ease the transition for both yourself and your employees
by keeping a selection of entertainment and personal use software
on the system during the break-in period. I find I can reduce
client training costs by pinpointing an area of leisure interest
and starting each employee out with a selection of free or
shareware fun software to help them learn computing basics.
Training takes less time because people learn faster amd with
much less distress when they're enjoying themselves, but this
sort of introduction also whets the appetite for more fun...and
there's an unending supply available.
I usually expect that ten hours of playtime by a novice user will
chop five hours' training from the client's bill. After the
first ten hours or so there doesn't seem to be a benefit, so you
might choose to have the fun stuff removed once everyone has been
trained.
6. Don't bank on computers to free up more time
Now and forever more, forget any ideas you may have that your
computer will free up more time for business or leisure. Unless
you're highly disciplined, it will do exactly the opposite. The
computer is a
labor-saving device, but the labor it saves leaves a hole in your
life which needs to be filled. Make plans for that time and
exercise the needed discipline to follow through with those
plans. If you don't, you can resign yourself to losing that
extra time to mahjongg, modeming or machine-gunning bad guys. I
have to accept this tradeoff to live with what I do. Every time
I put a copy of Solitile, Wolfenstein or Astrology for Windows on
a business computer I feel not unlike a drug pusher.
7. Automate everything that can be automated
Have your consultant or tutor set up simple programs to automate
any daily business chore which can be automated. This is one of
the least time-consuming tasks involved in converting a business
to computer, because all it requires is simple batch programming
skills or configuration of existing software. But it's also one
of the most rewarding for the end user. All popular operating
systems, from DOS to Mac to UNIX, have plenty of
readily-available and inexpensive software for automating tasks
such as daily file backups, reports, employee or project
scheduling and much more. It can take as little as ten minutes
for a consultant to configure a free or five-dollar program to
execute a task with just a couple of keystrokes, but this can
often result in several hours of time saved over the course of a
year.
Automation is nice, but beware of over-reliance upon it. Just as
every driver should know how to check the oil and change a tire,
every business needs at least one employee who knows the basics
of the operating system used by the business. Slight changes to
a Windows or DOS setup can play havoc with heavily-automated task
management. A simple mistake can literally cripple a business
until the consultant arrives.
I've encountered automated boot setups and menu systems so
complex that the installer was the only one who could service the
computer. This creates an expensive and unnecessary dependency
and a high level of fear in the user. In this day and age, with
ease of use at an all-time high, the goal of computerization
ought to be self-reliance.
There are manual-free shareware and public domain training
systems for DOS, Novell Netware and other systems which will
teach employees the basics of the operating system, and these
ought to be provided by every consultant to every new user.
8. Avoid dinosaur and "boutique" software
Future problems with data compatibility could render your
records worthless if your software becomes obsolete or too
limited for your growing business. Eventually you'll have to
upgrade, and the data you create with oddball software might not
convert to new file formats. Insure that your data is
future-proof by sticking with software which creates or exports
its data in an industry-standard file format. These formats
include Lotus, dBASE, Rich Text and ASCII among others. No
developer of custom software worth their fees will leave you with
a system which won't write or convert to an industry-standard
format, but I've seen expensive specialty software which lacks
this essential flexibility.
It seems sensible that incompatibility can be avoided by using
what everyone else is using. But we're talking about computers
here, and this world often demonstrates a reality which defies
everyday logic. The vast majority of small businesses in Canada
use Accpac for bookkeeping, but many businesses will discover
that it has severe limitations not found in less popular popular
packages such as QuickBooks or M.Y.O.B. And it will come as a
painful shock to many people when they discover that files
created on the junior version of a widely-used business package
cannot be directly transferred to the high-end version. More
shocking is the fact that the developer apparently has no plans
to build this compatibility into future versions.
Inexpensive packages tend to be the most prone to
incompatibility. Don't skimp on software or you may some day
have to convert years of data by hand to a new format or lose a
lot of your records due to incompatibility. It's a big step up
from a basic accounting or spreadsheet package at $75-150 to
full-featured software at $400 and up, but compare that to the
cost of re-keying three years' worth of data.
9. No piece of software will do all you need it to do
Chances are you'll need several different programs to accomplish
everything. The only way around this is to invest heavily in a
complete, customized turn-key system created by a professional
database programmer. This isn't the fault of the software. It's
not necessarily even a problem. The best stereo systems and TVs
are modular, so why shouldn't the best software setup be modular
as well? What's important is that everything works well
together. A do-it-all accounting package might make a great
ghetto blaster point-of-sale package for a small bookstore but it
probably won't have enough power or definition for the
distributors who supply them.
I personally have separate programs for time management,
bookkeeping and invoicing, advertising, promotion and planning,
and I'm just one man working out of my home. On average I find
it takes from five to eight different packages to properly
automate and integrate a small owner-operated business.
Fortunately there's shareware to ease the financial burden. If
you have a modem and some computing experience, try a few of the
many shareware databases, time managers, point-of-sale and
accounting packages before deciding on anything. There are free
and shareware packages available for everything from babysitting
and dating services to restaurants, body shops and dentists. The
quality ranges from spotty to downright astonishing.
You probably won't get all your needs met this way, but time
spent testing shareware won't be time wasted. Familiarizing
yourself with features, limitations and interfaces will cut your
training time and help you make much wiser buying and planning
decisions. On the other hand, if you don't know what's
available, or what's possible, you could settle for something
less than you really need at at cost of hundreds of hours' work
every year.
It's been my experience that every small business will find at
least one or two shareware packages which meet their specific
needs better than anything available off the shelf. At prices
ranging from $5 to $300 business shareware isn't always cheap,
but it's always available for a thorough test-drive. You can't
often say the same for retail software.
These packages can be obtained not from specialized software
dealers, but from local bulletin boards, online services and
specialty shareware vendors. A lot of consultants look down
their noses at shareware, but there are some who carry sizeable
collections. In fact, if I need something fairly specialized
I'll look through shareware libraries before consulting any
retail source. More often than not I find exactly what I need.
10. Don't skimp on the human help
If your needs are fairly basic and your heart is set on giving
your business to someone local, hunt down a software dealer who
truly understands small business. Virtually every retailer
carries the most popular accounting, database and time management
packages, but that doesn't qualify them as professionals or
experts.
In my experience, it's the odd salesman who has better than a
basic understanding of more than one database or spreadsheet.
The tidal wave of ignorance and misinformation is so enormous
that even the support staff for major publishers can't always be
trusted. I was told by one telephone support person that their
product wouldn't perform a needed function. I only learned of
this error when I ran into a salesman who let me examine the
manual. Sure enough, it did exactly what we needed it to do.
There's never enough product information supplied with any
software and no substitute for a test-drive or a browse through
the manual. That often means opening the package, and there are
still many dealers who won't do this for anyone but their regular
customers. The alternative? Buy a package, install it,
test it out, and when it doesn't meet expectations, exchange it
for another. You can waste whole weeks playing this game, or you
can spend an afternoon browsing manuals and program screens right
in the store. It all depends upon the retailer's level of
commitment.
11. Conform or be isolated
If you're an island, you can do as you please and cut every
corner you wish. File formats won't matter five years from now;
you'll be able to scan a printout or convert files from just
about any piece of business software no matter how obscure it
might be.
But if you farm out parts of your operation out to other people,
you have more than your own needs to consider. You might save a
lot of time and money if you can provide your hired guns with
data in a format they can use. Check with your bookkeeper,
printer, advertising consultant and everyone else who assists
your business operations to see which file formats they prefer.
If it comes down to a choice between two packages, this
information can make the decision much easier.
12. Brace for the break-in
Remember that the worst part of computerizing a small business
is the break-in period. But once you're out of boot camp you'll
wonder how you got along without it.
Oh, and if you still think this case was unique, let me tell you
about my latest client. Believe it or not, it's a computer shop.
As astonishing as it may sound, the owner hasn't been able to
find asuitable point-of-sale accounting package. Just like my
trucking client, everything he's tried is missing one or two
essential features. Frankly, I'm shocked. The developers
haven't even done journeyman service to their own suppliers!
This time I'm prepared. I've just spent two weeks testing
software.
The PC Owner's Survival Guide
Part 2: Maintenance
This section is by no means complete, but it will provide you
with the tools you'll need to deal with a large number of
potential problems and perform most of the basic maintenance
needed by the average PC.
Section 1: System and software
troubleshooting
Section 2: Do-it-yourself hardware
maintenance
Section 3: Back it up! Section 4: Upgrades
and updates Important Note: If any of these
jobs seems confusing or frightening to you, leave them for a
serviceperson or a friend or relative whom you trust:
a) not to harm your data, and
b) to be able to recover from any problems that may occur
while they are trying to help.
Maintenance section 1:
System and software troubleshooting
The hardware is only as good as the software that runs on it.
And the simple fact is that no matter how trouble-prone
IBM-compatible hardware might be, the average user is far more
likely to suffer software problems than hardware glitches.
Fortunately the most common software problems are entirely
preventable, and here are several simple do-it-yourself software
fixes and hardware trouble-stoppers you can perform without
knowing -- or caring -- what goes on "under the hood".
Making emergency start-up boot disks
(Windows 3.1)
Making emergency start-up boot disks
(Windows 95)
DOS and Windows backup disks
Checking your hard disk for errors or
damage
CMOS data and battery replacement Clock
batteries: what they are and how to replace
them Important Note: If any of these jobs
seems confusing or frightening to you, leave them for a
serviceperson or a friend or relative whom you trust:
a) not to harm your data, and
b) to be able to recover from any problems that may occur
while they are trying to help.
Maintenance section 2:
Do-it-yourself hardware maintenance
Computerdom is a land where fear often rules over common sense.
Some of the do-it-yourself maintenance discussed in the next
section is actual under-the-hood work which can be done even if
you've never seen the inside of a computer. Even if you do
decide to leave the engine work to real mechanics, there are
still plenty of simple things you can do to keep your system
trouble-free.
Dust buildup: what to do...or not do
Chip creep: when old chips decide to walk away
Basic floppy drive maintenance
Tape drives, CDs and backup floppies
Printers: easy to please (well, most of them)
Monitor maintenance...or not
Important Note: If any of these jobs seems confusing or
frightening to you, leave them for a serviceperson or a friend or
relative whom you trust:
a) not to harm your data, and
b) to be able to recover from any problems that may occur
while they are trying to help.
Maintenance section 4: Upgrades and updates
This is one of the biggest minefields in computing. It's time to
get used to the idea that computer ownership is much like car
ownership. Some people like a new car every year or two. Most
of us prefer to stay with what we have. The same is true of your
computer hardware and software. Here's some useful information
on the "upgrade trap" and a checklist to help you avoid falling
head-first into it.
Upgrading how-to's, when-to's and when-not-to's
An upgrading checklist
Making emergency start-up boot disks
A must-have accessory for Windows and DOS
No user should be without an emergency boot disk. An emergency
boot disk is a floppy disk you can use to start up your system
when you can't get it to boot from the hard disk. You may need a
serviceperson or a local hero to restore your hard disk to normal
functioning, or it could just be a temporary glitch that takes
care of itself (these things still happen!). Either way, an
emergency boot disk will let you access your system in a limited
way until you can restore your computer to normal functioning.
The procedure outlined below is automated in two procedures
called F-A-S-T Emergency Windows Backup and DOSBACK which are
included as part of First Train. It is recommended that you read
the rest of this section to get an idea of how these two
procedures do their stuff.
You can make an emergency boot disk with almost every
version and brand of DOS by using the SYS command from your C:\_
prompt, or by clicking Disk from the top menu bar, selecting
Format and choosing Make System Disk from Windows File Manager.
You can also use your DOS installation disks as an emergency
restart kit, but it's a time-consuming, confusing and potentially
risky way to get restarted.
Two disks are better than one
Actually, it's usually best to have two emergency boot disks, one
which will start your system from floppy disk just the way it
starts from the hard disk, and a second clean boot disk which
does nothing but start DOS.
A full-featured emergency boot disk
The best way to create your full-featured emergency boot
disk is to type these commands at the C:\_ prompt after inserting
a blank, formatted disk in Drive A. The first command copies the
needed system software to the floppy. The command you type is:
sys c: a:
...and press Enter. This command creates a plain boot disk, and
once you've done that, remove the disk and tuck it away in a safe
place. For your second emergency boot disk, you should type:
sys c: a:
...and press Enter again.
The next set of commands adds your configuration files for
DOS and Windows to this disk. These are very important files and
you should keep backups of these. The commands are:
copy c:\config.sys a: ...and press Enter, then type:
copy c:\autoexec.bat a: ...and press Enter again.
Once these files are on your floppy, your system should
start from a floppy disk the same way it did from the hard
disk...provided nothing is seriously wrong with the system.
(Often it's just the DOS system files which are damaged or
missing, or a misplaced copy of AUTOEXEC.BAT or CONFIG.SYS.)
Saving critical Windows and DOS files
This next set of commands copies all of your important Windows
and DOS files to the floppy disk. If you don't understand these
commands, that's okay. If you have these files, your
serviceperson will be able to restore all or part of your system
just the way you had it before, making it worthwhile to keep them
around. These commands will work on all standard DOS and Windows
installations, but if your installation was not done in the
normal way they won't work properly. If you DOS reports File not
found when typing these commands, don't worry. It just means
there were no appropriate files where DOS is looking for them.
These commands are typed at the C:\_ prompt from DOS.
md a:\windata
md a:\dosdata
copy c:\*.bat a:\dosdata
copy c:\*.ini a:\dosdata
copy c:\*.cfg a:\dosdata
copy c:\windows\*.ini a:\windata
copy c:\windows\*.grp a:\windata
copy c:\windows\*.dat a:\windata
copy c:\windows\*.cfg a:\windata
You'll need to create a fresh, clean boot disk every time
you upgrade to a new version of DOS, and you should create a
fresh, full-featured boot disk every time you install one or more
new programs on your system.
Making emergency start-up boot disks
Windows 95 makes it easy
Windows 95 gives you the option of creating an emergency start-up
disk when you first install it on your system, and if you didn't
do it then you can make one any time you like. Here's how.
1. Click the Start menu and select the Settings.
2. From the new menu that appears, select Control Panel.
3. When the icons appear for Control Panel, double-click on
Add/Remove Programs.
4. At the top of the window that pops up you will see a tab
on the far right called Startup Disk. There's only one
button to press and no options...it couldn't be easier.
5. Store your emergency startup disk with your other
utilities. If you start playing around with Windows 95's
configuration (and if you spend much time using it
eventually you'll want to do just that), you are almost
certain to need it at some point.
While we're on the subject of damage and emergency restarts, you
do have your original DOS and Windows disks, don't you? If your
dealer sold you a system with DOS and Windows installed, they are
breaking the law if they did not supply you with the manuals and
either the original disks or images of those disks which you can
make into disk copies using a program pre-installed on your
computer for this purpose.
If you paid for DOS and Windows when you bought your system, you
have a right to the disks and manuals. A large number of novice
users will need these disks to reinstall DOS or Windows at least
once in their first year of computing.
Checking your hard disk for errors
Early in DOS' evolution Microsoft added a repair tool for hard
disks and floppy disks called CHKDSK.EXE with their brand of DOS,
and every other DOS manufacturer has since come up with their own
version. Newer versions of DOS and now Windows 95 include a more
full-featured repair tool called Scandisk. This program checks
your hard disk for errors and corrects most of those it finds.
Sometimes the errors are so serious that they ruin a whole
software package. Sometimes only a document is damaged, and if
you're lucky the damage might occur with a file you'll never
need.
CHKDSK.EXE is a very important procedure, and it should be done
once a month even if you only use your system casually. It's
important because these errors can -- and do -- happen at any
time for almost any reason. A stray gamma ray from the sun can
damage a file. A glitch in DOS, Windows or one of your programs
could do it. It could simply be old age catching up with your
computer. But eventually almost everyone has disk errors.
A program Windows doesn't like
You can't run CHKDSK.EXE from Windows, or even by double-clicking
the MS-DOS icon from Windows and typing CHKDSK. Even if you have
Windows 95, you will need to have the Windows version of Scandisk
to use it from Windows. In order to run CHKDSK.EXE you must quit
Windows completely to do it, and you need to see the C:\_ prompt
and the flashing underline cursor.
The command you type to use CHKDSK.EXE as a repair tool and
not just as a diagnostic test is:
chkdsk /f
...and press Enter.
Run with the all-important /f parameter (for "fix"),
CHKDSK.EXE will check the disk for errors and fix any errors it
finds. If you see messages saying entry truncated or crosslinked
clusters while the program is working, you have file damage and
CHKDSK.EXE is doing what it can to fix it. Don't panic unless
your programs stop working or begin to behave strangely, because
most of the errors CHKDSK.EXE will find are harmless. If it
finds "lost allocation units", it will ask you if you want to
save them to files. Always answer [Y]es. You may never need
this data, but if you do, it will be there for a technician to
fix, and often this data can be used to repair a lost document in
a fraction of the time it would take to recreate it.
Scandisk vs. CHKDSK.EXE
If you have MS-DOS 6.2 or higher, or Stacker, DOS will also ask
if you want to run Scandisk to check for physical errors. This
is because CHKDSK.EXE only looks for file errors, which is
digital garbage. Scandisk looks for actual damage to the disk.
Any time DOS or Windows tells you it can't find a certain
sector, run Scandisk. Otherwise it's usually safe to run it only
about twice a year, or as often as four times a year once your
system reaches three years of age. Consult your DOS manual for
more detailed information on Scandisk and CHKDSK.EXE errors and
their meanings.
If you don't have MS-DOS 6.2 or higher, you don't have Scandisk.
You can use Norton's Disk Doctor for this job if you have a copy
of Norton Utilities or the Fix-it Disk that might have come with
Norton Desktop for Windows.
CMOS Data and Battery Replacement
The CMOS is a chip inside your computer that holds important data
regarding how your system is set up. Particularly important is
information about your hard disk, such as the number of heads
(like the heads on your tape deck), the number of sectors and
tracks (usually called cylinders on a hard disk, although that's
not what they actually look like) and a few other things. All
too often dealers won't supply you with the manual for your hard
disk when they sell you a computer, and that's often the only
place you'll find this information. Some dealers are nice enough
to put the data on a sticker on the back of your computer, but
most don't do this, so you'll have to get this information
yourself.
If you'd like to do the CMOS information backup exercise
yourself, we suggest printing this topic by clicking File and
selecting Print Topic.
A safeguard against catastrophe
Why do you need this information? If you ever suffer a
catastrophic failure, change your main circuit board
(motherboard) or the clock battery in your computer dies, you'll
probably lose this information and have to put it back by hand.
If you've noticed that your system is losing several minutes or
more a day when it never did before, it's a warning to get a copy
of your CMOS system data right away, because your battery is
probably on its last legs.
There are many ways to get this information, and several
utility programs claim to give it to you on disk, but if you
can't get into your computer after a catastrophic failure, how
will you ever read the information from the disk? You should
also have it on paper.
How to get to your CMOS data
As you boot your system, you'll probably see a message that
says:
Press <DEL> to run Setup
...or a similar message that tells you how to get to the
computer's built-in setup or configuration program. Do whatever
the computer tells you to do to get to the setup program. On
some systems, you don't get this message. You can force the
computer to show you its setup screens by pressing and holding
any key on the keyboard while it's booting up, and if that
doesn't work, try pressing Ctrl+Alt+S, or any three-key
combination of Ctrl+Alt+Shift plus Escape from the C:\_ prompt.
If none of these work, you may need help to get the important
CMOS information.
On most systems from 286 to Pentium, there are two or more
set-up menus. There's usually a standard menu and an extended
menu. On 386 and 486 systems, you may also see an advanced
chipset menu which comes with all kinds of warnings. We're going
to move carefully here and not change anything, so don't worry
about the warnings.
The first CMOS menu screen
Enter the standard CMOS menu first. If the information is
meaningless to you, don't worry about it. It will have meaning
to a serviceperson or computer handyman. Turn on your printer
and press the Print Screen or PrtSc key on your keyboard and see
if you can print the information on this screen. If you can't,
try Shift+PrtSc. If that doesn't work either, you'll have to
copy the information down by hand.
You can stop after this first screen if you have a 286 or 386,
because you now have the most important
information. If you have a 486 or Pentium, it would be wise to
get some more information. Press the Escape key to exit the
setup screen (or whichever key the computer tells you will exit
without making changes) and you're done.
Other CMOS screens
Now enter the extended CMOS screen and print that screen too, and
then print the advanced chipset screen as well.
When you're done, either press the reset button on the front
of the computer or -- if you understand what this means -- exit
Setup without saving, and your computer will restart normally.
File this information with your computer's manuals so you have it
handy in event of an emergency. It has saved thousands of people
the cost of a service call or shop visit.
The next topic describes the most common circumstance where
most users need this information.
Clock batteries:
what they are and how to replace them
How to save a fifty-dollar service bill on a five-dollar
replacement part
Almost all IBM-compatible computers come with a built-in
rechargeable battery that keeps the clock active and stores the
CMOS system data on a chip when the computer is turned off. But
like all rechargeable batteries, these wear down and eventually
need replacing. One day they'll simply refuse to take a charge
and that's that.
These batteries are soldered directly to the computer's main
circuit board and they're not usually considered replaceable.
Instead, you purchase a CMOS battery pack, which is a small pack
which holds four AA-cell batteries, has a self-adhesive sticker
on the back, and a clip for attaching to the computer's main
circuit board, for about $5.00. These are becoming scarcer, and
the more common type of replacement battery is a $15.00 five-year
lithium battery. If you can find the appropriate spot for it on
the circuit board, just plug it in, stick it to a metal surface
on the computer's case and you're finished.
The plug confuses many users because it's usually not
labelled, but if the connection posts on the motherboard say
Battery, don't worry if you plug it in wrong. It won't damage
anything to plug it in backward, but it won't work either.
An important warning
On the other hand, if the connection posts are not labelled and
you aren't sure where the plug should go, leave the job for
someone else. It is unlikely, but possible, that you could
attach the battery plug to the wrong pins and accidentally fry a
piece of hardware.
One of the flakiest parts on any PC
We have seen ten-year-old systems with rechargeable batteries
still going strong and two-year-old top-of-the-line 486s whose
batteries were already refusing to take a charge. It's like a
flat tire; you never know when, or if, you'll ever need a repair,
and if you don't feel confident doing that, a serviceperson or
serious hobbyist can do the job for you in about fifteen minutes.
If your battery dies before you can get the CMOS data copied down
and you can't get the information you need from your dealer or
serviceperson, MicroDrives Canada has a toll telephone line where
they offer important technical data on virtually every kind of
hard disk you're likely to see. The number is 1-900-451-3036.
The cost is CDN$5.00 for the first minute and CDN$3.00 for each
additional minute. If you open your computer and get the make
and model number (for example TEAC SD-3105 or Seagate ST-535)
before you call, you can usually get the information you need in
less than two minutes. You might also ask your dealer if they
know of a less costly 1-900 line where you can get this
information.
Dust buildup: What to do...or not do
We disagree with a lot of technicians about cleaning PC's. In
our opinion, internal cleaning of most older PC's simply isn't
necessary in most cases. Well-made systems will run for a decade
and collect a quarter-pound of dust, lint and build-up, and by
that time they're worth about the same as it costs for a
professional cleaning. Newer PC's are another matter. Dust
buildup contributes to heat buildup, and 486 and many Pentium
computers create a lot of chip heat.
Goodbye to the worries of yesteryear
Most of the concerns of a few years ago (for example never
smoking near a computer or discarding any floppy disk you've
touched with your fingers or brushed with a hair) simply don't
apply nearly as much today. Disks, floppy drives and circuit
boards are much more durable today, and it's not uncommon for
five-year-old systems owned by chain smokers to have a visible
brown film of tar on the circuits and never miss a heartbeat.
The parts most likely to fail due to dust buildup are floppy
disk drives, tape drives and power supplies. Aside from the
switches on the front of the case, these are probably the only
components in your computer with moving parts...except for your
CD-ROM drive, which can be cleaned with the same accessories you
use for your home and car CD player.
A simple do-it-yourself procedure
All that's required to clean dust out of a PC is to remove the
case screws (there are usually five on a desktop case and six on
a tower case), disconnect the electrical cable and external
device cables, take off the cover, carry the computer's chassis
outdoors and either blow or fan the excess dust away. When you
finish blowing, push open the drive doors on the front of the two
floppy drives and blow into them to clear any dust that may have
settled there. All that will be left is tar, if there are
smokers who live or work near the computer; and/or a thin film of
build-up on the circuit board. This can cause short-circuits and
partial circuits in some instances,
The only possible problem with this procedure is that
blowing (or, for that matter, vacuuming) away the dust may leave
small particles of debris on the floppy disk heads. It's a good
idea to run a cleaning disk through your floppies for five to
fifteen seconds after a blow-out.
Even this simple cleaning shouldn't be needed more than once
a year, once every two years if you have a clean work area or an
air filtration system.
Old PCs: better left alone?
There's some question about whether you should remove dust from
an old PC at all, particularly if it's not showing any problems.
All too often, office systems that sit stationary for years
suddenly develop problems with cable connections and chip
contacts when they're moved for cleaning or transport to another
location. Some servicepeople who have encountered this problem
will avoid cleaning old 286 and XT systems unless their clients
insist upon it.
If you do decide to blow dust out of an old PC, take the
opportunity to check cable and card connections while the machine
is open, and chip connections as well. Areas of high humidity
tend to
cause earlier corrosion of contact points on cards and cables
where they connect to the main circuit board of your PC, and
sometimes they like a little jostling back and forth to scrub
away the corrosion.
Chip creep:
when old chips decide to walk away
Chips that sit in their own sockets (as opposed to those which
are soldered directly to the circuit board) occasionally run into
a peculiar problem known as chip creep. The pins for these chips
sit in spring-loaded sockets. As the computer heats and cools
every time you turn it on and off, these chips have a tendency to
walk out of their sockets.
When and if you ever you open your computer for dusting, it
wouldn't hurt to hunt down every socketed chip in your computer
that you can easily get at with a finger or thump a and firmly
press these chips back into their sockets. You don't need to be
gentle about this; you can press with about the same force you'd
use on a thumb tack or push-pin. You'll hear a squeaking sound
as the pins reseat themselves if the chips have in fact climbed
partway out of their sockets
An important caution
Be very sure when you do this job that your computer is plugged
in so that it's grounded, that the power is turned off so you
can't be electrocuted or accidentally short-circuit any
components, and that you have at least one finger resting at all
times on the metal case so that static electricity can't damage
the chips with a sudden spark from your finger.
Newer 80386, 80387, 80486 and Pentium chips use a special
pin layout called a pin grid that you will almost never need to
bother with. It's only the centipede-like DIP components that
have a tendency to creep out of their sockets.
Basic floppy drive maintenance
On some PC's, dust or cigarette tar will eventually stop a floppy
disk drive from functioning. It's not the disaster it was in
days when replacing these drives cost several hundred dollars.
In most cases you can restore a non-functioning floppy disk drive
by running a head-cleaning disk through it for ten or fifteen
seconds. You can buy these disks for $2.00-$5.00 just about
anywhere where computer supplies are sold.
A warning about old-style cleaning disks
If you're cleaning a 5-1/4 drive, don't use the old-style
cleaning disks with the green cleaning surface. The surface can
be like sandpaper and will literally grind away your tape head,
particularly if dirt particles have already accumulated on the
surface from previous cleanings. The new white-fabric-surface
cleaning disks cost all of four dollars and are much gentler on
your disk drive. This is important to remember if you want to
keep your old drive, because used 5-1/4 drives are becoming
scarce.
To clean or not to clean?
The manufacturers of these cleaning disks recommend you use them
every month or so. We recommend using them only when you're
having more difficulty than usual reading your floppy disks. It
seems that some brands of disk drives come from the factory with
a protective lubricant on the heads that may be removed by the
solvent and the scrubbing action of the disk. We do know that
many disk drives which have had no problems for years seem to
become addicted to weekly cleanings once they've been cleaned for
the first time using a cleaning disk with fluid.
Tape drives, CDs and backup floppies
Retensioning backup tapes
Have you ever taken out an old cassette tape you haven't played
in a couple of years, popped it into the tape deck and noticed
echoes in the music that weren't there before? Those echoes are
known as print-through. If you're a rock fan, you may remember
the pre-echoes on early Led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath albums.
They were the result of magnetic print-through contaminating
layers of the master tape.
Manufacturers recommend rewinding tapes every year or so
whether they are played or not as a way to prevent this
print-through. Tape drives aren't supposed to have this problem,
but they do suffer from other imperfections and require annual
re-tensioning.
If you use a Conner, Colorado or other popular brand of tape
backup, you should see an option on the backup software's menu
for re-tensioning the tape. There may also be an option for
checking the integrity of the data, and if you have tapes in
long-term storage, they should be checked for integrity before
and after retensioning, and the data recovered if errors occur.
Floppy disk life expectancy
Depending on their quality and density, floppy disks have a life
expectancy of about five years. Cheap no-name disks tend to last
about half that long. Tapes seem to expire at the whims of the
fairies, but should last at least a year or two. When important
backup data reaches the end of the disk or tape's life
expectancy, it should be backed up again to new media. Keep both
the old and the new disk or tape just in case the new disk dies
of a defect before the old one...it happens more often than most
people imagine!
The first sector on the disk is usually the first to die,
and regrettably it's also the most important. if this part of
the disk is damaged, you will often need to hire a data recovery
expert at $50 an hour or more to get your data back for you. Not
a pleasant surprise when it's your 1989 diary, the novel you
almost finished in '91 or last year's tax return.
Compact disks: not a good long-term bet
Compact disks are also prone to age, and if you want mass
long-term storage on a custom-made CD, it would probably be a
good idea to get two copies of the CD made at the same time. The
cost of the second copy is usually considerably less than the
first, and areas that may show wear on the first copy five years
from now will probably be okay on the second.
Custom-made "one-off" CDs are particularly finicky. This
media is supposed to last for decades, but many corporate
archives suffered disastrous early corruption when it was
discovered that the material underneath the lens of the CD
decayed in as little as two years, making the data unusable.
Printers: easy to please (well, most of them)
If you have a laser or inkjet printer, there's not much you need
to do in the way of maintenance aside from the same cleaning
you'd give any other appliance. These are sophisticated units
and should only be serviced by experienced professionals or a
fairly competent handyman, but here are a few things you can try
on your own if you own a laser printer with the Canon SX engine.
(Hewlett-Packard LaserJets and many others use the Canon engine.)
Jams, fades, voids and specks
Have you been experiencing frequent paper jams? One jam every
two or three hundred pages is normal, but one in twenty is a real
problem. If there are no torn bits of paper in the paper path,
you could try replacing the toner cartridge, particularly if it's
getting on in years. Poor quality, too-thin or too-heavy paper
can also cause jams, and if none of these ideas solve the
problem, get professional service.
Print that is too light is a sign that your toner cartridge
is just about used up. Replace it before it dies completely,
because a cartridge low on toner will leave excess toner deposits
on the printer's fuser roller which binds the toner to the paper.
This will result in spotty or distorted prints even after the
cartridge is replaced.
Vertical streaks, smears, blotches, voids, specks and print
drop-out are all signs that a professional cleaning is needed.
Dot-matrix printer maintenance
Dot-matrix printers use ribbon cartridges rather than toner
cartridges, and they generally only need cleaning every year or
two. Window cleaner can be used to clean the roller, and the
best way to clean the print head is with a dry, worn-out ribbon.
Dot-matrix printheads tend to be self-cleaning. The ink used in
all factory-specification ribbons contains a special lubricant to
make sure that ink deposits don't build up on the print head's
pins.
Print a self-test page (your manual will show you how to do
this) with a worn-out ribbon, and this will usually clear any ink
deposits from your print head's pins. If it doesn't, you may
need a new print head, and unless you need your dot-matrix
printer for multi-part forms, a new print head will probably cost
more than your printer is worth. Used dot-matrix printers are
seldom worth more than $100 and usually less than $50 unless
they're heavy-duty units for commercial use.
Dust can be cleared from dot-matrix printers the same it is
cleared from inside a computer: remove the ribbon cartridge, take
the unit outside and blow into it.
Monitor maintenance? Well, let's see...how often do you take
your TV set in for routine maintenance? Never? Then why do it
with your monitor? They can be cleaned of dust every couple of
years if needed, but aside from that the only real maintenance
they need is an occasional wipe of the screen with some window
cleaner.
There is one exception. If you are concerned about
electromagnetic and x-radiation from the picture tube, you should
have the monitor's flyback adjusted every year or two by a
technician with the proper measuring instruments. Even
low-radiation monitors may be well above government standards for
emissions after a couple of years of use.
Upgrading how-to's, when-to's and when-not-to's
Overpaying for underperformance
There are literally millions of people who have spent too much
(often far too much) on hardware or software for the job at hand.
Many were coerced into upgrades they didn't need. When work bogs
down because of a slow system, it's obviously time to step up,
but don't make the mistake of upgrading for upgrading's sake.
Thinking realistically
If you are productively using Lotus 1-2-3 for DOS or WordPerfect
5.1, think long and hard before jumping on the Windows bandwagon.
Yes, studies have shown that there are performance benefits, but
other studies have shown that there are minimal gains to be made
by switching from DOS, and lost productivity in the learning
period could wipe out any time savings you might expect over the
following year. The point is that no one except you or a
consultant familiar with your work can say unequivocally that
yes, you will come out ahead with an upgrade.
Upgrading operating systems: a crap shoot
Been told that you have to have that new version of DOS? The
simple fact is that most businesses don't need anything more than
MS-DOS 5.0 or PC-DOS 5.1. In most cases, the benefits of DOS'
newer features are barely noticeable on office systems running
DOS or Windows. Home systems seem to prefer DOS 6.0 or higher
mainly due to the enhanced memory management needed by many
games.
If, on the other hand, shrinking hard disk space is your
biggest current problem, an operating system upgrade to MS-DOS
6.22, with built-in DriveSpace disk compression; IBM or Novell
DOS 7.0, with the superior Stacker compression software; will add
an enormous amount of new free disk space, saving you the cost of
upgrading hard disks until you need a whole new computer system.
Windows 95 also offers disk compression, but this is one the
worst possible reasons for choosing it as an upgrade.
As for Windows, look hard at the real benefits of Windows
3.11 or Windows 95 on a home or office system before jumping from
the version you're using. The performance increase promised by
the Windows for Workgroups Add-On has often been far less than
spectacular, and its extra software is generally useless to
people who do not compute on LAN-type networks.
Version X.0 anything (especially 1.0) is a gamble
Treat software upgrades like new model cars: give the
manufacturer time to work out first-run bugs before taking the
plunge, unless the promised improvements are so great that you
can't resist. Improved features often come at the expense of
serious bugs that don't show up until the product is out in the
marketplace. Let those users who have to have the new product
troubleshoot it and suffer the growing pains so that you don't
have to.
As a general rule, give a new program six months and see if
the manufacturer doesn't release an intermediate upgrade to fix
bugs. MS-DOS 6.0, CorelDraw 4.0, and IBM-DOS 5.0 and 6.0 were
prime examples of new-release nightmares. According to many
insiders, the Windows 95 upgrade released in September of 1995
had many bugs -- some serious -- that Microsoft allegedly knew
were there when
they shipped the software.
Bigger is not necessarily better
The newest releases of most popular IBM-compatible productivity
applications are horrendous overkill. They all seem to have far
more features, hooks, extras and gadgets than any user will ever
need. The standard line in the industry these days is that
you'll only use ten percent of your software, but that wasn't
always the case. Choose functionality now over room to grow for
the future....because at the rate the industry is going, there
might not be a future.
Computer hardware loses value so quickly that it only makes
sense to buy "in advance of need" with inexpensive components
with non-silicon-based operation. These components include
cases, monitors and disk drives. Virtually everything else will
drop dramatically in price as newer, bigger and better comes to
the marketplace.
The worst news of all: most upgrades are downgrades
The dirty secret in the computer industry is that hardware is not
keeping pace with software. Software is a consumable, something
we are expected to buy on an annual or biannual basis. Not so
with computers, and as a consequence software has become much
more complex and full-featured (many believe over-featured) than
the hardware can handle.
More and more users are learning -- the hard way -- that the
only way to make peace with these new "monster applications" is
to buy them big, comfortable homes. software upgrades often
demand hardware improvements, but the size, complexity and power
of today's industry standard applications frequently demand
top-of-the-line hardware before they're usable for any serious
work.
Don't believe it? Try running a new word processor on a
standard Pentium machine with Windows 95 and comparing various
operations with the speed of a standard 386 machine running a
word processor of its day and Windows 3.0 or 3.1. Granted, some
operations will be quicker on the new machine, but you might be
very surprised -- and dismayed -- at how slowly many others are
performed. Oh yes, the Windows 95 Pentium machine will be more
full-featured, but how many of those features will you actually
use?
An industry seduction
Five years ago this curse was reserved for elite versions of
productivity programs which might have sold for thousands of
dollars instead of hundreds...or less. Rapidly expanding home
and business markets have permitted publishers to offer their
top-of-the-line products at economical prices. This means
greater access to quality software, but all too often the product
is monstrous overkill. How many users need the complexity of a
Quattro Pro or a WordPerfect, even at less than $100? Most users
can survive quite comfortably, and all too often more
efficiently, with the spreadsheet or word processor packaged with
a works suite.
There is still a strong public perception that you need the
industry standard applications to be competent and compatible.
But think about this. If you could suddenly buy Greyhound luxury
touring buses for the price of a tent trailer, could you afford
the gas, maintenance, licensing and driving lessons it would
require? Make no mistake, when high-end applications go on offer
at bargain-basement prices, you face the same sort of dilemma.
An upgrading checklist
Here's an antidote to upgrade insanity. The next time you
consider an upgrade to your productivity software or utilities,
ask yourself the following questions. Print this topic if you
like to have it as a ready reminder. If you can't answer yes to
question 7 and at least four others, think twice about upgrading
until you feel a definite lack in your efficiency or comfort.
Stick with what you have, with what you know, and your
productivity will benefit. It's particularly important as a new
Internet user to keep an eye on the challenges you give yourself
because making the most of the net will require a fair bit of
learning.
You should also notice a side benefit from the increased
comfort of staying with what you have: greater creativity.
Nothing saps creativity like too much new information and too
little knowledge to put it to use.
1. Can your hardware take the performance hit you're almost
certain to suffer with any major upgrade? If not, will it be
cost-effective to upgrade both your hardware and your software to
accommodate the demands of these new features?2. Very few major
upgrades are truly plug-and-play. Even if it's only the
interface which has changed, you'll still need time to adjust to
it. Can you afford the time and stress required to learn the new
features?
3. The more system hooks, utilities and replacements you use
-- and there are hundreds available for every popular operating
system -- the greater your chances of incompatibility with your
existing set-up. Are you willing, or even able, to troubleshoot
these problems? If you're not sure, answer no.
4. Your competitors might still be using a 1983 version of
VisiCalc on an old Apple ][ system, and using it effectively. Do
the demands of your work truly necessitate the improvements this
new version will offer?
5. No ethical consultant will advise an upgrade unless there
are clear productivity benefits or the client is feeling
restrained by their current software. Are the new features
things you already know how and where you'll use, or goodies
you've been craving for some time? Are you sure they're not
gadgets you'll play with for a day or two and never find a use
for?
6. Many, if not most consumers, purchase top-of-the-line
software because an advertisement, a colleague or a consultant
hyped them into believing they needed it. Were you suffering
before you heard that the latest version does things you can't do
now?
7. When you buy productivity software, you're essentially
purchasing a slave. Its references ought to meet the same
standards you'd apply to any prospective employee. Have trusted
colleagues or industry professionals proven to you that the new
version will faithfully perform the tasks you expect of it?
Right computing for the 1990s and beyond
This section might be a touch too "bleeding-heart" or
touchy-feely for some readers. You might want to skip this part
of the PC Owner's Survival Guide, but we felt that since the
information was available and since such a large number of people
are currently interested in these issues that we'd include the
section for those who might want it.
The present generation of personal computers is still a long
way from the ideal of a human-friendly appliance with the promise
of being a great equalizer of culture, intelligence and
creativity. The image of computers as the domain of the
misanthropic and the disenfranchised still prevails, and this
image is often fostered by the industry itself. Love them or
hate them, the beasts have valid reasons for being. They save
time, enhance creativity, keep better records, and offer
unparalleled opportunities for low-cost education and
entertainment. But if you expect to achieve these benefits at a
minimal cost to your soul and your health, be prepared to spend a
little more time and money than the most owners. Responsible
technology always seems to demand more than simple consumption.
Many of the topics discussed here are dealt with in
considerably more depth in The Ergonomics Report.
Software
Legal issues regarding software and copyrights
Software publishing: information marketing or cybertraffick?
Hardware
Letting go of the Joneses
Radiation and emissions protection
Visual stress reduction
Noise reduction
Gas-off from new computers
Legal issues regarding software and copyrights
Software piracy: playing in moral grey areas
Self-honesty is usually the best place to start. When it comes
to PCs the average owner is far more likely to fudge on their own
ethics when it comes to software than perhaps any other area of
their life.
software piracy -- the use of illegal copies of copyrighted
commercial software -- is a serious concern to the industry.
Several years and tens of millions of dollars have been spent
searching for ways to combat loss of revenue without alienating
the public. It's a battle they won't soon win. Piracy is the
norm among home and business PC users, not the exception, and
that's not likely to change in the near future.
So where do your rights begin and end? Simply put, you do
not own software outright unless the author has expressly given
you that right, just as you don't own the music in your album
collection. What you own is a license to use it. Terms of
individual licenses vary, but most programs permit you the use of
a single copy on a single computer. You can't legally have one
copy of the DOS or Windows operating systems on both your home
computer and your notebook, even though you can only use one
computer at a time. But you can legally use the same copy of
most applications and utilities on both computers, provided that
both systems aren't running the same program at once.
Morality aside, there's also the addiction issue
If you're not clear about your own ethics, it's all too easy to
watch a software habit spiral out of control. It's not uncommon
for hobbyists and professional users alike to build collections
of dozens of programs worth thousands of dollars, only own
licenses for a few, and only use a select handful for more than a
couple of days. Veteran users tend to agree that there's nothing
morally wrong with borrowing a program you only need to use once
or twice. The same is usually true about purchasing an upgrade
version of a popular package at a fraction of the cost of the
full version even if you don't own an older copy of that program.
Industry-watchers aren't shedding many tears over the lost
revenues of the Microsofts, Novells and Lotuses of this world.
Instead they mourn the effect piracy has had on smaller
developers. There are literally tens of thousands of skilled
programmers who create useful software and distribute it either
as shareware or in short production runs by mail order or through
distributors. The sad truth is that the average user is far more
likely to pay $500 for a package they'll use less than once a
week than to mail a $25 registration cheque to the publisher of
the program they've used every day for a year to connect with the
Internet. The shareware segment of the industry has suffered
enormously due to piracy.
The low-tech, free software alternative
There are thousands of programs available with no-cost licenses
to do most of the things you want to do, from spreadsheets to
chess games, but tracking them down isn't easy. Giving up
full-featured pirateware for freeware usually means giving up a
lot of nice features. Erasing expensive programs you only need
once or twice a year and can't afford to buy can feel like
unnecessary self-denial. The registration fees for every
shareware program you've used enough to warrant payment could
easily total several hundred dollars. Going legal is a tough
choice that often involves compromise and hair-splitting, and the
decision is actually made more difficult by the behavior of the
same companies that scream the
loudest about piracy.
Software publishing: marketing or trafficking?
Victims of the hype
If you saw Microsoft's Christmas 1994 television ad campaign
(This stuff is powerful...use it!) and sensed a strong similarity
between their appeals and the seductive come-on of a drug pusher,
you're not alone. What other consumer product industry refers to
its target market as users? The industry has succeeded so
brilliantly in creating the illusion of need for a product that
didn't exist twenty years ago that it has public sanction to
label first-time owners dummies.
The ethics of many top industry players are considered so
bad by industry-watchers that there have been campaigns
encouraging boycotts, government-mandated sell-offs, class-action
suits and public anti-copyright revolt, variously centered around
Apple, IBM, Intel and Microsoft. And when you look at the facts
it's not hard to see why.
It's hard to resist the temptation to write your own rules
when you control your market as well as these firms have. It's
doubly difficult to resist the temptation of pirating a copy of
DOS, Windows 95 or MS Office when you hear insiders refer to
Microsoft over coffee as "cyberthugs" and toss off the phrase
almost casually, as if Microsoft is only one of a dozen firms
they could mention. (Our legal advisors have cautioned us
against attributing this epithet to the person who actually used
it or continuing in this particular vein. Suffice it to say that
he/she is one of the best-known computer spokespeople and
consumer advocates writing today.) In fact, piracy can seem
downright virtuous when you realize that the reality of a
Windows-dominated world leaves the consumer with little
alternative choice. Apple has been slammed nearly as hard for
their own business practices, and the complexity of OS/2 leaves
the average consumer with almost no other viable choices.
Letting go of the Joneses
Ah, those good old 16-bit days...
One of the easiest ways to get around the copyright dilemma is to
voluntarily remain in dinosaurland, to stay behind the times as a
conscious choice. You can purchase an old Mac or IBM-compatible
286 or 386 for a few hundred dollars. Privately-sold used
systems usually include plenty of software, and most of these
older systems are more than adequate for most jobs.
A non-color 286 system might sell for one-tenth the cost of
a comparably-equipped Windows system. An older Mac II with
software could be as little as one-fifth the cost of a new
system. It's common to find used copies of WordPerfect for DOS,
Bedford Accounting and dBASE at pennies on the dollar. We often
see them at garage sales for a dollar to ten dollars a copy.
Other benefits of low-tech
Older hardware may have benefits beyond low cost. The
industry has made significant advances in providing inexpensive,
energy-efficient, low-emission products. Most new software is
designed for high-powered processors and color monitors, and many
find that these produce uncomfortable levels of several types of
pollution. Lurid color overstimulates the visual cortex.
Electromagnetic radiation from chips, picture tubes and power
supplies plays havoc with immune function. Printers and fans
make noise. Some claim that even the gyroscopic effect of a hard
disk can have harmful effects. Older and less powerful systems
tend to produce significantly less radiation than newer units.
Unfortunately they also tend to produce a lot more noise.
Radiation and emissions protection
Processor chips and other components emit extremely low frequency
(ELF) electromagnetic emissions of a type that is difficult to
protect against without lead shielding or expensive devices such
as the Teslar ELF-shielding watch. The World Health Organization
issued cautions about ELF exposure more than a decade ago. Some
monitors protect against this type of radiation, but power
supplies and even a computer's electrical cables can also produce
significant amounts of this radiation.
This button connects with the section of the Ergonomics Report
included with the kit which talks in much more depth about
radiation-related issues regarding computers and high-tech.
Visual stress reduction
Flicker
Color monitors in particular are prone to flicker. Monitor
flicker is an optical and nervous stressor that some allege has
negative effects on our thought processes by encouraging abnormal
brainwave frequencies and resonances. Older amber and
black-and-white monitors produce flicker at a much lower
intensity; older color monitors on the other hand can be
extremely stressful in prolonged use.
Newer non-interlaced monitors often claim to eliminate
flicker...provided they're configured properly. Many are not.
Even a perfectly tuned LR/NI (low-radiation, non-interlaced)
monitor doesn't actually eliminate flicker. Instead it reduces
the perception of flicker by decreasing intensity and increasing
frequency beyond the visible threshold. It has been theorized,
but not proven, that increasing refresh rate (the rate at which
the color guns repaint the whole screen) turns a high-intensity
30-cycle-per-second visual and nervous stressor into a
low-intensity 60cps stressor which affects psychic function. If
true, color picture tubes of any kind will not be conducive to
developing one's subtler senses.
The only affordable alternative to traditional cathode ray tube
(CRT) monitors at this time is the LCD (liquid crystal display)
screen found on laptop and notebook computers which don't flicker
at all. LCD screens produce dimmer but much crisper images, and
most people find them less visually appealing than CRT monitors.
In recent conversations with computer professionals we have
uncovered a large number of closet LCD-lovers who wait anxiously
for the day when these screens become the norm in home computers.
Noise reduction
Taming the digital din
Laptops are also very quiet, and computer noise can be a serious
stressor for sensitive or creative people. Practically every new
desktop computer available today comes with two cooling fans, one
for the power supply and another smaller fan for the central
processing chip. They also have hard disks that whine
incessantly unless they're configured to shut down after a period
of time. (The new Green PC standard allows monitors, CPUs and
hard disks on properly configured IBM-compatibles to
automatically power down to save energy after a few minutes of
inactivity.) Low-noise fans are one option, but disconnecting the
fans permanently will eliminate noise problems.
Any capable serviceperson can disconnect both fans in less
than half an hour, but most will strongly advise against it. You
will likely be told that reduced cooling will almost certainly
result in early chip failure. Who cares? After five years the
average PC has lost at least 80 percent of its value, and most
heat-sensitive components have life expectancies of more than ten
years in normal use. A fanless power supply might fail much
sooner than a CPU chip, possibly in under a year, but once again,
who cares? What artist or teacher will object to an annual
$100-$125 power supply replacement for the sake of as much as
40dB less background noise in their workspace?
Airing your computer's guts
IBM-compatibles can be effectively ventilated fan-free by
removing plastic covers from unused disk drive bays on the front
of the case and unscrewing card slot flanges and connector
knock-outs from the rear. The top half of the power supply's
housing can be permanently removed to improve ventilation and
prolong life. Chip fans can be replaced with less efficient,
noiseless heat sinks for just a few dollars. (Many 486 and
Pentium processors will behave strangely without a heat sink of
some sort.) Desktop cases can be turned on their sides like
tower-style cases, and the convection currents created by chip
heat will take care of the rest.
Removing the fans will eventually make you painfully aware
of the noise made by the average hard disk, particularly on older
XT's and 286's. Much of it is resonant whine from the drive
vibrating the computer's metal case; hard disk whine isn't nearly
as noticeable on the average laptop. You can't eliminate this
noise without unbolting the drive and encasing it in a Styrofoam
block, which makes the drive too hot to be viable. But there's
no reason why a home system that never gets moved can't have its
hard disk unbolted and held up by two small strips of foam to
allow air to circulate around its housing. This can eliminate up
to 80 percent of hard disk noise with almost no significant
increase in operating temperature.
Both of these procedures are safe if performed by a competent
serviceperson, but be aware that they will probably void the
manufacturer's warranty.
Virtually noise-free computers can be purchased for basic
work, as long as you don't mind the hassle of loading everything
from floppy disks. Second-hand Atari 1040STs and older Macs
without fans or hard disks can be had for as little as $100.
Both offer excellent high-resolution black-and-white screens
which are more than adequate for word processing, drawing,
everyday desktop publishing, games and bookkeeping. The data
these older systems create will usually be convertible for use
with newer Mac and Windows software, and high-quality software
can be purchased for them for pennies on the
dollar.
Gas-off from new computers
The computer stressor no one talks about
New computers have an additional drawback most people don't
consider until they get the beasts home: gas-off. Newer PC's
tend to generate far more waste heat than their ancestors did,
and power supplies work harder to keep up with the increased
demand of high-resolution color monitors and powerful processors.
Any component that generates enough heat will evaporate nearby
chemical residues from the manufacturing process. Plastic parts
give off residues for anywhere from weeks to years after
manufacture, and heat will accelerate the gas-off rate. Some
sensitive noses may even detect paint odor from a new computer's
metal case.
Manufacturers and retailers are not likely to consider these
fumes any more harmful than body odor, but many people report
increased sensitivity and physical symptoms during the first few
weeks of ownership. The only solution, aside from purchasing a
used machine or a demo unit, is to leave a new computer running
constantly in a warm, well-ventilated area with the monitor on
and a screen saver activated for as long as it takes for fumes to
drop to tolerable levels, usually one to six weeks.
Random jottings
This section of tidbits may not save your soul, your sanity or
your data, but we did have the material lying around, and since
it takes up so little space, relatively speaking, in the kit, we
decided to add it for your enlightenment and amusement.
DOS 6.0's buggy disk compression
Cleaning out those useless files
Delete protection: how to reclaim your own trash
Reclaiming DOS memory
Better sound without better speakers
Two timeless Windows tips
If DOS won't verify your data, who will?
Transferring old data to new computers
Silence is golden, not necessarily deadly
Surge protectors: no best-before dates here
Did you know...(a collection of truly random tips)
If you're using MS-DOS 6.0 with DoubleSpace compression software
and haven't upgraded to MS-DOS 6.2 or 6.22, do it now! Beg,
borrow or steal a copy of the DOS 6.2 or 6.22 upgrade. Microsoft
only released this update after users lost thousands of files due
to serious bugs in the software, and class action suits were
actually launched against Microsoft as a result. Retail update
disk packs are nearly sold out (you may find them at parts depots
and a few mom-and-pop computer outlets), but the needed files can
usually be obtained free from your regular support person. They
may also be available from Microsoft's FTP site at
ftp.microsoft.com.
Cleaning out those useless files
This section might be a little too technical for some users. If
you do not have experience working with DOS or Windows' File
Manager you may wish to skip this section until you have a little
more ability in the area of file management.
Pruning the deadwood
There's nothing like a ton of deadwood on a hard disk for scaring
PC owners into believing they need upgrades that often aren't
necessary. It's not uncommon for a well-used 386 to accumulate
more megabytes of useless Windows files than useful data. It's
often possible to prune enough dead weight from a hard disk to
postpone the need for an upgrade for to another two or three
years.
The precision pruning usually done by support professionals
and technicians is usually too risky for the average user, but
freeing an extra 10 to 50 megabytes of free space on a tight
system is easy for any intermediate-level user once they know
where the deadbeat data hangs out. In fact, useless data is so
prevalent on IBM-compatibles that it's usually possible (but
never advisable) to trim as much as 25 percent of the data on a
system that's never been used without ever affecting its
performance.
Many publishers have capitalized on this an created several
automated routines for clearing out this useless data. CleanSweep
is now available for old and new versions of Windows. Newer
versions of Norton Utilities contain duplicate file killer
utilities. Several other useful utilities are available as
shareware. But if you don't want to spend the money on a
dedicated hard disk cleaning utility there is usually a lot of
trimming you can do yourself with a little guidance.
Click the printer button to print a copy of this topic as a
reference in case you'd like to try it on your own.
Being your own maid
The first files to go should be Windows temporary files. In
almost every case they're a complete waste of space. If you've
used any serious Windows application for more than a month, you
probably have useless .TMP files on your system which are doing
nothing but taking up space. Users who turn off their computers
before properly shutting down Windows can accumulate literally
hundreds of dead .TMP files a year.
Depending on how the system was set up, .TMP files could be
hiding in the C:\DOS directory, C:\WINDOWS, C:\TEMP, or a TEMP
directory tucked inside of WINDOWS. These files are
distinguishable as trash by the characteristic " ~ " at the front
of their name and .TMP at the end (e.g. ~WRI3125.TMP). Using
File Manager, DOSSHELL or DOS' dir and cd commands, find the
directory containing these files and delete every file beginning
with ~ and ending in .TMP. If you're working from the DOS prompt
and you're in the directory containing the useless files, use
this command to erase them all at once:
del ~*.TMP
It's important that you only erase .TMP files, because .EXE, .DOC
and other files with the same "~" character might be needed
later. Don't risk losing them for the little space they usually
take up. If you
know what you are doing, you might want to check the dates on
these files, and if they are more than a couple of weeks old you
can usually consider them safe to delete.
A permanent end to temporary clutter
Here's a trick for making sure you never have to do the job
again. Start Notepad and Open AUTOEXEC.BAT by typing
C:\AUTOEXEC.BAT in the File Name: box (top left corner). Add the
following at the very start of the file:
del c:\dos\~*.tmp
...then press Enter, Save the file, and Exit. (If you found the
.TMP files in C:\TEMP, type del c:\temp\~*.tmp instead; if you
found them in a TEMP directory inside of the Windows directory,
type del c:\windows\temp\~*.tmp, etc.) From now on, every time
you start your computer DOS will make a lightning-fast check of
the directory where .TMP files are stored and automatically erase
any deadwood it finds. If there's nothing to erase, DOS will
display a congratulatory File Not Found message, letting you know
that you quit Windows properly the last time you used it and no
stray .TMP files were left over.
Erasing leftover DOS versions
The next best place to look for deadwood is in old DOS
directories. If you've upgraded DOS since you bought your
computer, you probably have from one to ten megabytes of leftover
DOS versions you'll never need again.
MS-DOS versions 6.0 and higher have a new tool for dealing
expeditiously with this waste. If after a month or so you've
discovered no reason to switch back to your previous DOS version,
you can erase your dud DOS directory by typing DELOLDOS at any
command prompt (C:\>_ , C>_ , C:\WINDOWS\>_, etc.) or by clicking
File and then Run from Program Manager and typing DELOLDOS in the
Command Line: box.
Erasing an unwanted version of DOS 5.0 might free up as much
as 3Mb; unneeded versions of DOS newer than 6.0 are probably
using up at least 4Mb and possibly as much as 10Mb each. No
small potatoes if you're still tied to a 120Mb hard disk.
Sometimes you'll have several OLD_DOS directories on your system.
If so, you can erase them quickly by highlighting any OLD_DOS
directory from File Manager, pressing Delete, and telling Windows
to erase everything when it asks about specific files.
A faster burial for dead DOS
You can also trim a lot of fat from your current DOS
directory without causing serious problems, particularly if you
have DOS 6.0 or higher.
Don't use the built-in antivirus program? You'll free up
well over a megabyte by killing all files in the C:\DOS directory
starting with MSAV and MWAV.
Don't use Microsoft Backup? Clear nearly two megabytes by
erasing all files starting with MSB and MWB.
Don't use DOSSHELL? Erase all files starting with DOSS and
as much as another megabyte is freed up.
Don't want disk compression? Kill all files starting with
DRV and DBL for another half-megabyte or more.
Use PC-DOS, DR-DOS or Novell DOS? Check the manuals...they
also have goodies you don't need which could be taking up
precious hard disk space.
In most cases it's wise to stop your DOS pruning here, but you
can usually erase a lot more files from MS-DOS 6.0 or higher
without ever noticing it...as long as your system is not a
laptop, has a VGA or SVGA monitor, and you don't use DOS HELP or
any DOS programs older than 1992. The files most users will
never miss include all files starting with A, ED, EG, FA, G,
HELP, I, K, L, N, Q, R and X; as well as COUNTRY.SYS,
DELTREE.EXE, DISKCOMP.COM, DISPLAY.SYS, DRIVER.SYS, FASTHELP.EXE,
FASTOPEN.EXE, FC.EXE, FIND.EXE, MOVE.EXE, SORT.EXE, SUBST.EXE,
TREE.COM, VSAFE.COM and XCOPY.EXE.
Just to be on the safe side, make a DOSTEMP directory, move these
files into it, and wait a month before deleting them just to be
sure you're not erasing something you were never told you needed.
Add another meg and a half of free space if you can do without
the whole list.
A data diet for Windows
The WINDOWS and WINDOWS\SYSTEM directories probably contain
several more megabytes of files you'll never need, particularly
if you use Windows for Workgroups and don't use any of the
Workgroups features such as mail, scheduling or fax.
Never erase a Windows file you don't recognize and expect
things to operate properly. Always move potentially expendable
files to a temporary dumpsite directory and wait a month or two
before deleting them. In general it's best to leave Windows
pruning to an uninstaller program designed for the job or a
technician who knows which programs need which files.
Goodbye to backups
The next space hog to seek out is the .BAK file. Many
applications preserve backup copies of your work in case you're
not satisfied with your most recent revision, and it's surprising
how many users never realize they exist. Over a year or two,
.BAK files can chew up dozens of megabytes on a well-used office
computer. There's no quick way to get rid of them from DOS.
Hunting through every directory with File Manager or DOSSHELL is
probably the quickest manual method if you don't have access to
one of the many freeware programs that do the job automatically.
However, if you have PKZIP.EXE on your system -- an
extremely common "technician's leftover" from service or setup,
and an essential modemer's accessory -- here's a lightning-fast
set of commands for removing every .BAK and .BKP file on your
hard disk. It works by building a list of all such files on your
system, getting PKZIP.EXE to move every file on the list to a
central location, including duplicate files with the same name,
and then deleting the whole garbage heap in one fell stroke.
This routine doesn't actually compress the data but only moves
it, so it's almost as quick on a 286 as a Pentium.
dir /b /s c:\*.bak>c:\ziplist
dir /b /s c:\*.bkp>>c:\ziplist
pkzip -e0 -m -r -P c:\trash.zip @c:\ziplist
del c:\trash.zip
This routine is an excellent tool for sweeping out many other
types of deadwood. Don't have a sound card to play .WAV or .MID
files? You can erase them just as easily with the same commands
by substituting *.wav or *.mid for *.bak in the above script. If
you've switched virus scanners, you can clean up old, unneeded
Microsoft Antivirus checklists by replacing the dir commands with
dir /b /s c:\chklist.ms>ziplist and using the same PKZIP.EXE
command.
Don't get carried away with your pruning...a lot of files with
unusual extensions or characters such as .$$$ or .OLD might be
more useful than you'd guess from their names. As long as you
have the space, it's usually advisable to keep anything that
holds any promise of being useful later. Files no one but an
expert should erase include all old AUTOEXEC.BAT, CONFIG.SYS,
WIN.INI and SYSTEM.INI files. These old duplicates often have
cryptic extensions such as WIN.NDW, SYSTEM.SYD, CONFIG.$$$ or
AUTOEXEC.UMB. They take up very little space, and could provide
a technician with a valuable paper trail for diagnosing software
conflicts at some time in the future.
One last measure to insure against disaster
Finally, remember to wait a week or two before running DEFRAG,
SDEFRAG, SPEEDISK or any other hard disk optimization program
once you've finished pruning. If you've erased a needed file,
you may still be able to get it back using an undelete utility.
Delete protection
How to reclaim your own trash
Delete protection can be a lifesaver. There's nothing worse than
sitting down at your computer and discovering that a file you
erased last week is critical to a job you need done today. It's
such a common problem that dozens of delete-protection schemes
have been created for the commercial and shareware/freeware
market, and virtually every operating system on the market today
comes with delete protection software. Unfortunately, you don't
usually get this protection until you specifically ask the
software to provide it.
The Windows undelete programs included with recent DOS
versions and all-purpose utility packages can easily be
configured to preserve both deleted files and directories from
premature loss. MS-DOS' undelete is considerably less versatile
and doesn't allow for undeleting directories. Consult the manual
for your DOS or utility package for details on configuring delete
protection, or try configuring it yourself by double-clicking on
an undelete application icon.
If you have a recent DOS plus a multi-utility package such as
Norton Utilities, Norton Desktop or PCTools on the same computer,
it's important to install only one delete-protection program.
Accidentally configuring a second delete protector could have
unexpected results, such as flooding your hard disk with useless
data that refuses to be deleted.
Setting up delete protection
Generally speaking, you can set the protection schemes to handle
file number and directory size limits as large as you like on
newer systems. Limits of 1,000 files and up to 50Mb of space for
the trash directory are not necessarily excessive on a new 1.2Gb
drive. Most schemes will automatically "take out the trash"
after a certain number of days to prevent overloading your system
with dead data.
It's usually wise to set the delay on purging or "flushing"
to at least 30 days, particularly if there are functions or
programs you only use once a month. If your hard disk has the
space and the program lets you do it, you might want to set the
delay as long as a year.
You can often successfully recover deleted files without
installing delete protection, but full-time protection offers a
much wider margin of safety because it actually preserves an
exact copy of the original file. This level of protection is
virtually a necessity in homes where both parents and children
use the same computer.
Reclaiming DOS memory
Still stuck in the DOS trap
Windows 95 and OS/2 Warp both come with nifty updates to DOS that
make significant improvements in the amount of memory available
and the way your computer handles it. Nowhere is this more
important than when it comes to good, clean (or dirty)
fun...games. The high-speed, high-resolution graphics and sound
in today's games consume enormous amounts of processor speed and
system memory, and all too often stress your system beyond its
limits.
Most of us are still stuck with a stand-alone DOS and
Windows 3.1/3.11. There's nothing worse than getting your new
game home and finding out that it won't run until you find a way
to clear another 75 kilobytes of DOS memory or create one of
those dreaded boot disks.
It's not much easier when you use your computer for a
living. There always seems to be one essential program that
insists on EMS and plays havoc your carefully-optimized DOS setup
by chewing up a whopping 64k of precious upper memory for the EMS
page frame.
Making use of what you have
Fortunately you can work around these problems quite easily with
virtually all DOS packages released in the last two years.
The easiest way to handle most "out of memory" problems is
with a garden-variety "clean boot", a boot configuration which
loads nothing but DOS and allows the game full access to all the
memory your system has available. You clean-boot DOS by pressing
the F5 key within two seconds after seeing the "Starting DOS..."
message displayed onscreen at boot-up.
Sometimes a program will insist on HIMEM.SYS and nothing
else. No problem...well, not much of one. Another recent
feature is called "interactive boot". Pressing the F8 key when
you see the "Starting DOS..." message will cause DOS to ask you
for confirmation of every command in the boot process.
This can be a royal pain in the backside with the average
multimedia setup, but it doesn't need to be. HIMEM.SYS is
usually the first command executed, so you can simply press "Y"
to load that particular driver and then press and hold the "N"
key, quickly bypassing all other boot commands, until the C:\>_
prompt appears, and backspace out the leftover "N"s at the
command prompt.
EMS on demand
Handling the occasional need for EMS memory is a bit trickier,
but still a lot less trouble than it used to be. The new DOS'
now allow you to select or reject an individual driver or command
at boot-up with the simple addition of a question mark in the
command.
First you'll need to load CONFIG.SYS into Windows' Notepad
or a text editor. Next you create a duplicate copy of your
EMM386.EXE statement (the line that begins DEVICE=C:\WINDOWS[or
DOS]\EMM386.EXE) on the line directly below the original command.
Next you change both copies so that they each have question marks
and one allows for EMS memory while the other does not. If your
original statement looked like this:
DEVICE=C:\DOS\EMM386.EXE NOEMS
...your new setup would have two statements that look like this:
DEVICE?=C:\DOS\EMM386.EXE NOEMS
DEVICE?=C:\DOS\EMM386.EXE RAM
The first command provides upper memory, no EMS, and up to
64k more DOS memory. The second command gives you access to EMS
when you need it.
The next time you boot DOS, it will ask you with a [Y,N]? prompt
whether to execute the particular command. Simply type "Y" after
the one you want and "N" after the one you don't want.
Presto...EMS on demand.
Be sure to check your DOS manual before making these
changes. Different brands of DOS may want the question mark
placed at a different location in the command.
Custom boot menus: hackers' heaven, novice hell
If these relatively simple solutions doesn't satisfy you, you can
always take an evening or two and learn the wonderful intricacies
of custom configuration menu programming. Beginning with the
most recent DOS versions, you can now tailor several completely
different DOS boot setups and select them individually from a
push-button list each time you boot. Be sure to have an
emergency boot disk handy with copies of your original
AUTOEXEC.BAT and CONFIG.SYS files before tackling this job. If
this is your first stab at programming, you're almost guaranteed
to need this protection at least once before you get the job
right.
The biggest drawback to custom DOS boot menus? Your next
operating system upgrade will probably handle memory problems
well enough to make most of your programming skills obsolete.
The second-biggest drawback? Once you get used to
programming boot menus, hacking these menus often becomes more
fun than using the programs the menus were programmed to
accommodate.
Better sound without better speakers
What your retailer won't tell you
Want better sound from your multimedia kit but don't want to pay
for special speakers for your PC? If you have a stereo system is
in the same room, you should be able to make its speakers and
amplifier do double-duty. All you need is a special cable that
connects from the LINE OUT jacks of the sound card to the AUX IN
jacks on your stereo receiver. Ask at your home entertainment
accessory dealer for a 1/8" stereo male to RCA stereo male
adapter cable.
These cables are usually three feet or shorter, not nearly
enough to reach from the average CPU to the average bookshelf
stereo receiver. If their in-stock unit is not long enough, a
walkie-style headphone extension cable will probably give you the
length you need.
Most experts caution against using regular stereo speakers, which
are usually unshielded (meaning they will emit some
electromagnetic interference when you use them), as multimedia
speakers for your computer. The argument is that speaker magnets
play havoc with hard disks and floppy disks and could also
interfere with the operation of the computer's circuitry.
They're right on both counts. But if you have a quality sound
system in the same room as your computer, it's likely that the
speakers are at least four feet from your CPU and that you
already play your stereo at times when you use your computer. At
that distance your data and circuitry should be safe from all but
the most monstrous sub-woofer magnets.
Two minor cautions
This setup shouldn't cause problems as long as the speakers are
kept well clear of the computer and any cables connecting your
peripheral accessories, and you don't accidentally set your
floppies down too close to the speaker enclosures. The
combination of a real stereo amplifier and quality speakers
should give you a quality of multimedia sound you'll find much
more pleasing to both the ears and the pocketbook than dedicated
multimedia speakers.
This warning is more for your esthetic sense than your
equipment: jacking a cheap sound card into a quality stereo
system, or even a good set of headphones, will make any
deficiencies in the card glaringly obvious.
Two timeless Windows tips
Permanently personalizing Program Manager
Here are three very basic Windows tricks known to almost every
veteran user which never fail to delight and amaze new users,
particularly those who avoid manuals like the plague, which is
most of us.
Tired of having the look of your Program Manager change on
you every time you boot your computer? If more than one person
has access to your computer, you are probably faced with an
ever-changing icon layout. It can be especially irritating if
you have to hunt for the icons for your most-used programs
because they keep changing position on you.
There's a simple solution for the problem. Start by
disabling Save Settings on Exit from Program Manager's Options
menu.. Next, arrange group windows and icons in the manner that
appeals to you. Now click on File and then click Exit -- and
here's the big secret -- while at the same time holding down the
Shift key. You'll see the hourglass flash for a moment, but
Program Manager won't kick you out of Windows. Instead,
"Shift"-Exit saves your current desktop to disk. The next time
you start Windows, your Program Manager will look exactly as you
saw it when it was saved.
Finally, to make sure it stays that way, tell no one who
might mess with your handiwork how you did this.
DOS in a window
Another surprise to novice Windows users is that most DOS
programs that don't use graphics (text-only) can run either as a
window or covering the full screen, allowing for cut-and-paste of
text and viewing of other windows while working in the DOS
program. Some DOS programs don't allow it, most notably
WordPerfect, but in most cases holding down the Alt key and
pressing Enter (Alt+Enter) will convert a full-screen DOS program
to a windowed program with smaller screen text and more intuitive
access to the rest of Windows.
Okay, let's make it three...
Once you become handy enough with Windows to want to hacker -- or
at least study -- your configuration files, there's a secret
utility you'll find lurking in the SYSTEM directory of Windows
called SYSEDIT.EXE that you'll probably find very handy. It
isn't normally installed into the Program Manager setup of
Windows 3.1/3.11, perhaps to keep novices from inadvertently
messing up their systems. That means you'll have to dig it out
and install it yourself.
System Configuration Editor is a quick, slick hybrid version
of Notepad which loads AUTOEXEC.BAT, CONFIG.SYS, WIN.INI and
SYSTEM.INI (others as well depending on the version of Windows),
into separate windows in the same program for easy
cross-referencing and editing. Windows 95 includes this utility
too...and no, you can't get it to load into your Start menu
unless you do it manually.
If it is available on your version of Windows, System
Configuration Editor is available as an option from the main menu
of F-A-S-T Emergency Windows Backup if you cannot find it on your
system.
...and one for DOS
If you ever get a hankering to hacker DOS (and despite the dire
predictions, there will be benefits from doing so for many years
yet), you might not know that literally hundreds of obscure
features have been added to the DOS utilities over the years that
your manual may never mention and the HELP menu won't even hint
at. You can uncover these switches, options and built-in help
screens by using the /? parameter with most .EXE and .COM files
in the DOS directory. Try typing SMARTDRV /? at the DOS prompt
for a potentially rewarding taste of what you can find with just
one DOS program.
If DOS won't verify your data, who will?
The risk you don't hear about
One of the dirtiest secrets about DOS is that it doesn't check
the integrity of your data while writing it to either your hard
disk or a floppy disk unless you specifically ask it to. It's a
secret because in most cases you don't need to know. It's a
dirty secret because by the time you find this out, you usually
wish someone had told you about it sooner.
The reasoning behind this decision was fairly sound. Hard
disks are generally pretty reliable, and disk reads and writes
have always been the most time-consuming aspect of computing. If
DOS has to make a second pass on every bit of data written to a
hard disk or floppy disk to insure that data was recorded
accurately, it increases the time taken for disk writes by as
much as 60 percent. Normally you'll only want verification on
the occasions when you're writing to a floppy disk. Even then
some experts say the risk is negligible.
Others say it's serious enough to warrant using verification
all the time. Longtime users all seem to come around eventually
to the notion that one should never trust no-name floppy disks,
even new ones, and after a year or two not even brand-name
floppies should be trusted to be accurate. Even high-quality
floppy disks develop errors at rates as high as ten percent per
year. Hard disks are much more reliable, but some technicians
consider any hard disk to be a high-risk candidate for physical
defects after three years of regular use.
It's ten o'clock. Do you know where your data is?
If you frequently need to copy data to floppy disks, it's a good
idea to have verification turned on at least temporarily until
you're sure data has been properly stored. If you're running an
old XT, 286 or 386 and you're concerned about the security of
your hard disk's data, it might be wise to have verification on
all the time.
Permanently changing DOS' write verification to ON a simple
task. All you do is open Notepad or a text editor, load in your
AUTOEXEC.BAT file from the C:\ directory, and add a line of text
reading VERIFY ON to the top of the file, making it the first
command. You can also turn verification on and off at will from
the C:\> prompt by typing VERIFY ON or VERIFY OFF and pressing
Enter, and it's a good idea to do so when writing to a floppy
disk. Unfortunately, you can't do this from Windows unless you
open a DOS window first or have a Windows program which provides
this feature for you.
If all you want to verify is your backup disks, check to see
if your backup software has a verification switch built into it
before adding permanent VERIFY ON to your configuration.
You can make the verification switch simpler and available from
both DOS and Windows by typing these two DOS commands:
echo VERIFY ON>c:\dos\on.bat
echo VERIFY OFF>c:\dos\off.bat
Configuring write verification in Windows
Once you have executed these commands, they will create two small
batch programs which will allow you to quickly turn verification
on or off from DOS simply by typing ON or OFF and pressing Enter,
and from Windows by using the Run command in File Manager or
Program Manager and typing ON of
OFF in the Command Line: box. It's rare, but possible, that
these commands will conflict with a normal DOS/Windows setup, but
it's unlikely you have software on your system that uses an ON or
OFF command directly from DOS or Program Manager.
Turning on verification before copying files to a floppy disk is
a good habit to adopt at any time. It's also devilishly
difficult to remember if you've been copying without a safety net
for several years.
Transferring old data to new computers
New life for your old work
You might have data on disks from a stone-age computer which
you've been told cannot be recovered or moved to your
IBM-compatible. Perhaps the files were created on an old
Franklin, Tandy Color Computer, Apple II or Commodore 64, or use
one of the very early DOS formats which are no longer readable on
new computers without special drives. These files can probably
be recovered more easily than you think, particularly if it's
just text that you want.
There are free and shareware programs available from
shareware CDs, bulletin boards and flea markets which will allow
you to read all these data types and probably others as well.
The easiest way to tackle the job is to find a local hobbyist
with the type of computer the disks came from who also has a
modem. The files can then loaded onto their computer and emailed
back to you in a form you can handle, avoiding the problem of
incompatible disk formats; or transferred directly from one
computer type to another through a modem connection or null modem
cable.
If this sounds too technical, don't worry. Anyone who has the
gear will probably know how to do the job, and you can bank on
data transfer rates charged by a hobbyist to be a fraction of
what commercial firms charge for the same job.
If in doubt, fake it
There are even programs, which can literally turn newer computers
into copies of dinosaur CP/M, CoCo II/Dragon, Amiga 500, C-64,
Atari XE, Adam, Apple II, TI-99/4A computers and many others as
well. This allows you not only to have your old data on your new
IBM-compatible, but to run your old programs too.
These "emulator" programs are rarely perfect, and their cost
usually reflects their quality. Many of them are freebies that
were released after the developer got tired of trying to perfect
the software, and in this stage they're often little more than
highly ingenious "toys". The emulator you need may not allow
your IBM-compatible to read disks created by your old system, and
may not run the program you most need it to run. But when they
do work they usually run at a reasonable speed and may allow you
to use old software until you can find an inexpensive way to
convert your data to a more recent and compatible format.
New life for old floppies
Dealing with single-sided IBM-compatible floppies and other
strange formats isn't nearly as troublesome. The same places
where you'll find the emulator programs should also offer a free
utility kit from Germany called FDFormat which allows most -- but
not all -- newer IBM-compatibles to read and write to obsolete or
unusual PC floppy disk formats.
Be very wary about contracting for data conversion unless you
have a guarantee that the data will be fully compatible with
industry-standard formats such as ASCII or DOS text, Lotus 1-2-3
spreadsheet, or standard database-import formats. Converting and
cleaning up an old client database or book manuscript created
with oddball software on an ancient system could cost hundreds of
dollars if you're unlucky
enough to have used a little-known software package.
There are conversion programs for virtually every well-known
application for virtually any computer made in the last fifteen
years, but the cost of someone who knows can use this software --
and knows where to find it -- may be prohibitive if the data
isn't very valuable on its own.
Most of the programs suggested here are publicly available for
free, but there may be a fee charged for the disk on which they
are provided. An excellent all-purpose source for most of these
programs, and virtually any useful utility you might ever need,
is the SimTel CD-ROM from Walnut Creek. It's a huge collection
of 10,000-plus DOS programs updated two or three times a year
from the most popular Internet repository of non-entertainment
DOS software.
Silence is golden, not necessarily deadly
Going fanless: is it worth the risk?
The noise generated by the latest generation of PC's can be a
serious stressor for sensitive or creative people. Virtually
every new desktop computer available today has two cooling fans,
one for the power supply and another smaller fan for the central
processing chip. Low-noise fans are one option, but
disconnecting the fans permanently will eliminate noise problems
once and for all, and may be the only viable option for a
computer used in a quiet workspace.
Any capable serviceperson can disconnect both fans in less
than half an hour, but most will strongly advise against it
because reduced cooling will almost certainly result in early
chip failure. Who cares? After five years the average PC has
lost at least 80 percent of its retail value, and most
heat-sensitive components have life expectancies of more than ten
years in normal use. A fanless power supply might fail much
sooner than a fanless CPU chip, possibly inside of a year, but
once again, who cares? Few artists or teachers will object to an
annual $100-$125 power supply replacement for the sake of as much
as 40dB less background noise in their workspace.
Airing out the guts
Most IBM-compatibles can be effectively cooled without a fan by
removing unused disk drive bay covers from the front of the case
and unused card slot flanges and knock-outs from the rear. Most
of the power supply's housing can be permanently removed to
improve ventilation and prolong life. "Chip fans" can be
replaced with less efficient, noise-free "heat sinks" for just a
few dollars. (Many 486 and Pentium processors behave strangely
without at least a heat sink.) Desktop cases can be turned on
their sides like tower-style cases, and the convection currents
created by chip heat will take care of the rest.
Removing the fans will eventually make you painfully aware
of the noise made by the average hard disk, particularly on older
XTs and 286s. Much of it is resonant whine from the drive
vibrating the computer's metal case; hard disk whine isn't nearly
as noticeable on the average laptop. This noise can't be
eliminated without unbolting the drive and encasing it in a
Styrofoam block, which makes the drive too hot to be viable. But
there's no reason why a home system that never gets moved can't
have its hard disk unbolted and held up by two small strips of
foam to allow air to circulate around its housing. This can
eliminate up to 80 percent of hard disk noise with almost no
significant increase in operating temperature.
Doing it sensibly
Both of these procedures are safe if performed by a competent
serviceperson, but be aware that they will probably void the
manufacturer's warranty if you have a fairly new computer. You
should also avoid going fanless if you have a fairly high-end
system, a Pentium rated higher than 60MHz or an older Pentium
with heat generation problems, or have added a lot of extra cards
to your system which could be additional heat sources.
We have heard of some hopped-up systems which ran so hot
that the case could barely be touched with bare fingertips, and
obviously such a system needs all the cooling it can get. Your
system probably never gets more than slightly warm to the touch.
So if your serviceperson still insists on a chip fan, ask why
most notebooks don't include them. If they insist on a power
supply fan, ask why the
fanless power supplies on older Macs, Ataris and Amigas last so
long.
Surge protectors: no best-before dates here
Stripped power strip?
If you've been using an inexpensive four- or six-outlet power
strip (power bar) with a built-in surge suppressor as protection
against power line inconsistencies, you may not be as safe as you
think. Surge protectors work by sensing sudden increases in
power such as those caused by lightning strikes of power lines
and quickly "clamping" the voltage, or greatly reducing its
level, faster than it would normally take for a fuse or breaker
to blow. When the crisis has passed, it allows normal line-level
voltage through to the outlets again. If a surge is sudden
enough and large enough, it can fry electronic components before
fuses or breakers have a chance to shut off the power.
The actual surge protection is provided by a round disk the
size of a quarter, called a varistor, which is soldered inside
the power block or strip between the outlets and the plug. It's
not commonly known that this disk degrades with time and use.
According to some tests, they have a life expectancy of two years
at most, and many will fail after the first high-voltage spike
they receive regardless of their age.
You can buy replacement varistors for a couple of dollars at
parts depots such as Radio Shack, but it's usually more trouble
than it's worth, especially since you can't easily tell whether
or not the component is reliable.
Yet another disposable product
Brand-new power strips with surge suppressors can be had for as
little as $4.00, so replacing an old varistor may be pointless
unless you're conservation-inclined and have no other use for a
power strip. Some technicians believe that cheap power strips
shouldn't be relied upon for surge protection at any time. At
best they will only suppress a powerful spike, possibly allowing
less-powerful but still damaging voltage levels to reach your
equipment.
Longer life, solid-state surge suppressors start from $30
and run as high as $150. You can purchase units that protect
phone lines and electrical outlets as well as modems and fax
machines. (It's possible for electrical spikes to travel through
phone lines as well.) Some manufacturers of commercial grade
surge protectors, also known as "power conditioners", will even
warrant your equipment against electrical spike damage while it's
plugged into their product.
Power line surges strong enough to damage electronic
equipment are fairly rare in most urban areas. In rural locales
with inconsistent power, or in certain businesses where
high-voltage power leaks are possible, power conditioning may be
essential. If you really need that protection, don't trust your
electronics investment to anything less than quality solid-state
surge suppression units.
And if you're particularly health conscious, you can purchase
conditioners that correct anomalies in the current, reducing the
level of ELF electromagnetic radiation emitted by the electrical
cables themselves. The World Health Organization cautioned us to
reduce exposure to ELF radiation as far back as 1984.
Did you know...
...that with an inexpensive adapter plug, you can plug almost any
IBM-compatible keyboard into your laptop or notebook computer,
and connect your home system's VGA or SVGA monitor directly into
it for better look and feel?
...that you can often use inexpensive cables to plug your sound
card into your stereo system and often save a small fortune on
high-performance computer speakers?
...that in most Windows programs and functions with lists,
including Program Manager and the Open and Save boxes, you can
usually find the file or program you're looking for much more
quickly by typing its first letter? It's called command
completion or file name completion, and more new programs use
this all the time.
...that adding a second hard disk to your computer might be the
most time- and cost-effective backup system you can buy? With
recent price reductions, a second 500Mb hard disk may be as cheap
as an internal tape backup unit and a couple of tapes, and will
back up your data much more quickly. Not recommended if you work
in a high-crime area or are at risk to have your computer stolen.
...that you don't need an expensive utility such as LapLink or
File Shuttle Express to synchronize your notebook and desktop
computers? You can buy inexpensive file shuttle cables from most
dealers which connect two PC's using fairly fast printer port
connections. MS-DOS 6.0-6.22 comes with baby network software
called Interlink which lets you use the second computer's hard
disk more or less as if it were in your own system, and IBM and
Novell brands of DOS have their own intelligent file
synchronization utilities included. If you're sticking with
MS-DOS and want something easier than Interlink, ask your
shareware dealer about two free synchronizer programs, one for
DOS called ElseWare and one for Windows called SAMESAME.
The Virus Awareness Kit
Before continuing with this section, we strongly recommend
reading two other sections. The first is our short explanations
of the exact meanings of virus and trojan, and the second is a
close look at Computer Virus Myths, recommended if this is a
subject that really worries you.
Computer Virus Myths
Introduction: Flat tires and broken fanbelts
Viruses, trojans and the Internet
Trojans: a greater worry than viruses
A seven-point battle plan
Backups and antivirus software: minimize your risk of
infection
Flat tires and broken fanbelts
We like to think of viruses and trojans as the flat tires and
broken fanbelts on the Information Highway. They can put a fast
end to your fun with almost no warning. But in most cases, the
problems they cause are completely preventable with a little
common sense and preparation. All you need are good, up-to-date
antivirus software and a regular habit of making thorough backups
of your most important data. Most veteran computer enthusiasts
don't fear infections at all, although they do respect the
threat.
It's true that a virus can destroy every bit of data on your
system, wiping out months or years' worth of work. But it's also
true that a flat tire can kill you...if it happens at the wrong
time and in the wrong place. A little common sense and
prevention will go a long way toward insuring that, just like a
flat tire, even the most destructive viruses will never cause you
more than a minor inconvenience.
Yes, you read that correctly. Even the most destructive
viruses need never cause you more than a minor inconvenience.
Ignorance is the root of all fear, and in the case of viruses and
trojans ignorance has been perpetuated for far too long and hurt
far too any people.
Virus panic
Virus panic has scared literally thousands of people away from
the online world. In fact, the effects of the panic can be worse
than the infection itself. Steve Winter, one of the authors of
this software, became so concerned at the discovery of his first
infection that he erased several dozen good floppy disks in an
attempt to stamp it out. He only discovered later that it was
just one disk which was infected, and some of the erased software
was never recovered.
Virus panic is a damnable shame, because it simply doesn't
have to happen. Period. If you're ready to learn the facts
about viruses and trojans, put virus panic behind you once and
for all, and enjoy the mountain of free and free-trial software
on the Internet, we have two prescriptions which should cure you
for good if you've been afflicted with this dreaded illness.
The first prescription for sanity
First we recommend browsing the Computer Virus Myths section by
clicking this highlighted hotspot. This piece, created by two
experts on viruses and released to the computing world as a
public service, is one of the sanest and most informative
introductions to computer viruses and virus panic that we've ever
seen. It contains a lot of information you might not care about,
so feel free to browse only the sections of interest to you.
The second prescription
Secondly, pay close attention to the sections on backups and
antivirus software. They are your best line of defense against
all kinds of damage to your data.
How safe is the Internet?
The average Internet user will be lucky (or unlucky, depending on
your point of view) if they ever see a virus. You can't get
viruses from email, and any trojan contained in an email message
will look like garbage and be trashed instantly anyhow. You
can't get viruses from browsing pages on the Web, not yet at
least, so Netscape, Mosaic and other such programs are quite
safe. You can't get viruses from USENET newsgroups unless you
are actively taking software, not just text messages, from these
newsgroups. In other words, nearly all of the sights, sounds and
especially the text documents are as close to being completely
safe as you could expect.
The reason these things are so safe is because anyone
spotting this nastiness is likely to go well out of their way to
stamp it out in a big hurry. Trojans spread using text, sound
and pictures have been rare and generally confined to very small
groups. But that's not to say that nasty things can't be stowed
away in pictures, sounds and text.
The real risk comes with obtaining programs from the
Internet, because a program is by far the easiest thing for a
virus to infect. Even then, if you're even moderately cautious,
you might spend every hour of every day for a year surfing the
net and never stumble upon a single virus.
Play safe, play sensibly
As with all things in life, you're as safe as you make yourself.
It's just that simple. If you take care of your body, you won't
get sick nearly as often. If you take care of your software, it
won't get sick as often either. But just as you can't completely
protect yourself against colds and flu, you can't completely
protect against viruses and trojans. It's possible -- extremely
unlikely, but possible -- that every copy of Windows ever created
contains a trojan planted by a disgruntled ex-Microsoft
programmer which will destroy data on every hard disk where it is
installed on August 24, 1998 at 12:00 p.m., and no one might know
about it.
It's also possible that you could be hit by a meteorite as
you sit and read this. The odds on either of these two
occurrences are extremely low.
So the choice is yours: you can play safe and sensibly, use
preventative measures and endure the relatively low risk for the
enormous potential rewards of the net, or you can hide.
The ultimate fun-killer
Nothing takes the fun out of getting new software from the
Internet like the fear of a virus infection. Fortunately, your
risk of infection from popular sites on the net is very small.
How often have you heard of major infections from the Internet
lately? Not often, we'll bet. If this was a common occurrence
and a lot of people were being hurt by it, you'd better believe
that the media would never shut up about it. You might remember
the media hubbub over Michelangelo and the Internet worm. A
serious destructive virus outbreak on the net would have the
tabloid news programs talking about it for weeks and the
government making even louder noises about regulation.
In fact, this type of reaction is precisely what happened
with the infamous Michelangelo virus, which was designed to
activate on a specific date. Tens of thousands of computers
suffered data loss because the virus was only discovered a few --
too few -- days before it was set to go off. Servicepeople still
get calls every year on March 6 when it "goes off" from
distressed users who have
lost the use of their computers. We still know of companies that
refuse to turn on their computers every March 6th for fear of a
fresh outbreak, which is a reaction born of ignorance.
Alas, even though people still get nailed every year by
Michelangelo it's just not news any more. Virus outbreaks on the
Internet, though...now there's a headline writer's dream. If it
was a serious problem, you'd know about it.
Viruses and trojans: no more than a minor annoyance
The risk of being infected by new DOS and Windows programs you
find on the net is nothing more than a minor annoyance if you
take the precaution of making regular backups of your important
data. You can access the guide to backups from the PC Owner's
Survival Guide main menu, and if you're still worried after
browsing it we strongly recommended that you read the Computer
Virus Myths section if you have not already done so. The sober,
reasoned statements and sound advice offered there by Messrs.
Rosenberger and Greenberg should calm most of your fears.
Never underestimate the cleverness of virus writers
On the other hand, never forget that virus programmers are smart
people. They will test every antivirus program on the market to
make sure that their new creation won't get noticed. No one, and
we mean no one, can honestly promise 100 percent protection from
viruses and trojans. Viruses have appeared in shrink-wrapped
packages containing some of the most popular programs in the
world. Even the major publishers get embarrassed from time to
time by infections that escape their detection.
This point gets a double growl. It's not well-known to most
intermediate-level users that one of the most common methods of
spreading viruses is to infect an antivirus program.
Fortunately, most Internet sites, online services and private
bulletin boards are rigorously checked by the administrators.
Non-UNIX users are well-protected from Internet viruses and
trojans
As a Windows/DOS user, you are protected from most of the serious
destructive programs spread over the net. When virus programmers
spread their destruction on the net, their target is usually the
UNIX-based systems that do most of the Internet's grunt labor.
There has never been a known UNIX virus which could harm an
IBM-compatible that was running DOS and/or Windows.
Let that sink in. A virus that infects your Internet
provider is unlikely to cause you any more harm than a day or two
of lost email and a short wait while they clean up their own
mess.
Trojans: a greater worry than viruses
A much higher rate of destructiveness
Trojans are actually a much greater concern than viruses. A
trojan horse is a piece of destructive program code that hides
out in an otherwise harmless-looking file. Trojans don't usually
spread themselves (they depend on you and I to spread them
around), so they have a very short lifespan in the computing
world. But unlike viruses, which can be relatively harmless,
trojans are almost always highly destructive.
In fact, as a Windows user, trojans are virtually the only
method viruses have of infecting your system via the Internet. A
virus can't infect your software until you run a piece of
software that spreads the infection, and in order to run the
software, you have to get it from some other location. Unless
your Internet connection is a true network connection, meaning
that your disk drives are shared with the rest of the Internet,
you can't be infected by activating a program on someone else's
system. You can only do it by downloading that program to your
computer and running it from there.
A trojan horse can be anything from a small utility that
reformats your hard disk instead of tuning it as promised to
something so clever and sophisticated that it might paint obscene
messages on your computer-generated artwork. Trojans are much
easier to create than viruses (we could create a trojan in ten
seconds from a standing start, but we have no idea how to program
a virus) and trojans often escape the detection of antivirus
programs until they are reported to the antivirus' author.
The best protection against trojans is the exact same protection
you use against viruses: regular, well-planned backups and common
sense.
Steps you can take to minimize the risk
This is war -- guerrilla war -- and no war can be easily won
without a battle plan. Here are the steps we recommend to
protect yourself against possible infection not just on the
Internet, but in all your computing.
A seven-point battle plan
An important primer on backups
Antivirus software: which to choose?
A seven-point battle plan
1. Have the latest version of a virus-checking program, such as
McAfee's SCAN.EXE or F-Prot's VIRSTOP.EXE running on your machine
at all times by adding its name and path to your AUTOEXEC.BAT or
CONFIG.SYS file so that it runs every time you start your
computer. Good antivirus software is widely available on the
Internet, and some of it is free for personal non-commercial use.
2. Exercise extreme caution when attempting to use new software
posted to the alt.binaries newsgroups. This software often
cannot be checked before it is cleared for public consumption,
and viruses and trojans are quite common. If you don't trust
your virus protection software, we recommend waiting 48 hours
before running any new program found in one of these newsgroups,
and then checking the newsgroup to find out about any virus
warnings. If someone was infected by a publicly-posted binary
file, you can be sure you'll see a message about it.
3. Stay away from "pirate" newsgroups. Any newsgroup with
warez in its name is, believe it or not, specifically set up for
the illegal exchange of software, and your provider might have
these newsgroups available on their server. These groups are
known for sloppiness and dirty tricks tactics, and viruses and
trojans are very common among the posted software. Experienced
users of these newsgroups consider this risk to be part of the
price they pay for access to free commercial software. In fact,
we know of one pirates' newsgroup where you can expect to find at
least one infected file every week.
4. Never ever run any program that looks "too good to be true"
without having it checked out by an expert first, or at least
waiting for an expert's opinion. A prime example occurred in
mid-July 1995 when a program was posted to several alt.binaries
newsgroups which was supposed to allow older 80486
microprocessors to emulate the functions of the newer, faster
Pentium. In reality this was a program that formatted your hard
disk without asking.
5. If you haven't already done so, create a "rescue disk". If
you have Norton Utilities, PCTools or another full-featured disk
utility package, one of the programs included will probably be
able to back up critical information about your hard disk and
system which could be corrupted by one of the more common
viruses. If you don't have such a package, you can make a rescue
disk using the ThunderByte antivirus package described in the
section on antivirus software, but be sure to follow the
instructions for creating this disk carefully.
6. Have your virus scanner check every new program you install
on your computer that does not come from a site you trust.
People's personal home pages might offer links to software
located on obscure FTP sites where software is not checked for
safety and integrity before it is made available to you.
7. Never FTP files from a site's /incoming/ directory. These
files have not been cleared by the site's administrator and could
contain anything, from a harmless damaged file to a trojan that
damages your video card.
Before browsing the topic on backups you might want to create a
bookmark for this section so you can easily find your way back.
The backups section is fairly long and found in the PC Owner's
Survival Kit which is a separate module.
Click the bar below to browse the section on backups; click
anywhere else to resume.
Antivirus software
Good antivirus software is just as important to your peace of
mind as good backup habits, and it's critical that you know
exactly what your antivirus software can and can't do. In most
cases, people who believe they're safe don't have nearly the
protection they think they have. Here's how to insure that your
protection ranks with that of the most knowledgeable users.
Problems with antivirus software
Our picks of the best: all available free or for free trial
The importance of being new and improved
Problems with antivirus software
Chinks in the armor
Antivirus software has been spotty since it first appeared on the
market. It's no secret among veteran computer enthusiasts that
antivirus programs all seem to have holes in them. They just
plain miss some viruses.
Others scare people to death with false positive readings
(reports of potential virus activity where there is no
infection). Some report so many false positives or "potential
viruses" which are actually safe files that one consultant we
know used five different antivirus programs and made it a habit
of ruling out virus infection unless two or more gave a positive
diagnosis. Problems with your hard disk, a missing file or stray
byte of information, an old virus scanner, and even installing a
clean update to a good piece of software can all produce false
positive readings in some programs.
Fortunately most authors of antivirus software keep
extensive records of data types that produce false positive
readings and attempt to minimize their frequency or warn you
about them when you perform a virus scan.
False negative readings: another serious problem
Unfortunately, false negative readings can be equally common, and
they ought to concern you. There's nothing worse than being told
you are safe and later discovering that your hard disk was a
disaster waiting to happen.
The most common cause of false negative readings is old
antivirus software. The antivirus that came with your Norton
Utilities or DOS package was obsolete months or even years ago
and won't detect the newer "strains," or variations of existing
viruses created by mischievous programmers. It's nice to have
this older software as a second line of defence, but we don't
recommend relying on it as your primary method of detecting
infections.
What to look for in antivirus software
Selecting antivirus software is a fairly easy chore. There are
few "bad" antivirus'. One thing you might want to watch for
though is "special purpose" antivirus software designed to detect
or kill only certain types of viruses or trojans. Monkey virus
was extremely common in Vancouver in 1994 and 1995, and many
people relied on a program called KILLMONK.EXE to detect and
remove it. Unfortunately, some of those people also used it as
their first line of defense against all viruses and trojans, and
sadly some paid the price for using such a limited tool.
In other words, you need antivirus software that detects a
wide range of viruses.
We don't recommend any virus software that can't be regularly
updated by the user. If you plan on sharing programs and files
with others on the net, or participating in the binaries
newsgroups, it's important to:
a) keep your virus software up-to-date, and
b) if you can possibly arrange it, keep two different virus
programs active in your system at all
times. Most quality antivirus programs include
behind-the-scenes monitoring modules that pick up any strange
behavior and check that behavior with a database of virus
"signatures".
Three free or low-cost antivirus packages
It seems everyone has their favorite virus program. New
contenders appear on the market every few months. Our favorites
are the ThunderByte and F-Prot programs. We're suckers for ease
of use, and while these two are primarily DOS programs, they're
as simple to use as anything we've seen. Try Web searches using
the names of these programs to find copies of the most recent
versions on the Internet.
LATE NOTE: ThunderByte was reported missing in action Dec.
31/95; we've left the links intact in case this is a temporary
problem. At presstime we were unable to download or locate the
software on the Internet.
McAfee, Norton and Central Point are also good
choices...provided you have the latest updates. ThunderByte,
F-Prot and McAfee are all widely available on the net, and F-Prot
is free for non-commercial users. If you have an active Internet
account and the Tourist Class or Business Class version of First
Train, you'll find point-and-click links where you can instantly
obtain up-to-date versions of all three packages from the Virus
Prevention Page of First Train online.
F-Prot
Our first choice for antivirus is a program called F-Prot,
developed in Iceland by Fridrik Skulason. It is one of the
easiest antivirus' to use and also one of the most thorough.
It's a DOS program that can also be run from Windows and Windows
95, and best of all it's free to private non-commercial users.
(It's also very cheap for commercial users, with licenses as low
as one dollar per computer, and free updates four times a year.)
It's not quite as easy to use as the antivirus included with
your DOS, but this version will be more recent and worth the time
to learn if you plan on downloading files from USENET newsgroups
or making a fair bit of use of anonymoust FTP.
ThunderByte
Our second choice is ThunderByte, an antivirus program from the
Netherlands which is exceptionally fast and versatile.
Unfortunately it will take a little more time to learn to use
this program than it will to learn F-Prot. This too is a DOS
program. TBAV (tee-bav), as it's known to the online world, also
has a Windows interface if you'd prefer a simpler, more familiar
layout, which is available from the second set of buttons. The
two do not come in the same package. ThunderByte is shareware,
and it has a commercial counterpart called Look which uses the
same ultra-fast detection "engine". TBAV is probably the scanner
of choice for those who demand raw speed in an antivirus.
McAfee Scan and Clean
Our third choice is McAfee's excellent set of virus utilities.
These have been considered the standard in North America for
several years now. You should find TBAV and F-Prot to be quite
sufficient for most needs, but McAfee comes with its own built-in
Windows shell program.
Windows 95 versions of Scan and Clean are also available
now, but be aware that many users have reported possible
conflicts with Windows 95's operating system. These problems
will probably be
fixed by the time you read this.
The importance of being new and improved
Antivirus software: less valuable with age
It's critical for your own safety that you keep your antivirus
software constantly updated with the latest and cleaning
options. New strains, variations and families of viruses and
trojans appear all the time, and your antivirus should tell you
when it is outdated. Most antivirus' flash a warning at you if
the software is more than three months older than the date used
by your system clock.
At this time we know of only one program which will reliably
identify viruses which have not yet been created, a shareware
program called Invircible which is not yet supported by First
Train for the Internet and is not covered in this guide. Sure
enough, some adventurous cracker will eventually break through
its protection. The moral? Don't depend on any single program.
Updating shareware antivirus'
Antivirus updates are so important that they are routinely
posted for IBM-compatible users on or about the day of release to
the comp.binaries.ibm.pc newsgroup as uuencoded binaries. Just
so you know, the moderators of this group are ruthless about
checking for viruses on software posted to comp.binaries
newsgroups...it's the alt.binaries newsgroups you need to watch
out for.
Updating NAV, CPAV, MSAV, IBM Antivirus and others
If you have the full commercial version of Norton Antivirus,
Central Point Antivirus, Microsoft Antivirus, IBM Antivirus, or
any other popular antivirus, and it is not a trial or junior
version included as part of another package, the price you paid
for the software probably includes free access to updates for at
least a year.
The antivirus' manual or on-disk documentation should
include FTP locations or URLs for acquiring the latest updates.
The signature file, the database of virus and trojan information
the software uses to tell good data from bad, needs to be updated
as new viruses are created and unleashed on the public. Every
popular antivirus publisher has a site on the Internet where you
can obtain the latest version of their program or signature file,
or information on how to obtain it if these updates require
advance payment.
If your antivirus of choice was included with your computer or
with your DOS or Windows software, or was included as an added
extra in another software package, you are probably not entitled
to receive free updates.
Don't change your clock as protection from viruses
A very common -- and very effective -- trick for avoiding
problems with some destructive viruses set to "go off" on a
certain day, is to set your system date back a week or two. But
if you plan on being a participant on the net and not just a
consumer, don't do it! Not unless you can remember to set your
clock properly every time you log onto the net.
Once you're on the net, your email and newsgroup postings
are usually "time-stamped" according to the time and date on your
computer's system clock. If your clock is set a week behind,
your newsgroup posts may not be allowed by the server. Even if
they are, they may wind up buried so
deeply in the newsgroup that no one ever reads them.
Don't allow your system clock to get more than a few hours
out of sync with the correct local time, or you may have problems
getting the server to accept your postings or messages. Even if
you can get your postings through they may be buried several days
deep in others' databases and never get read.
There's another reason not to mess with your system clock.
Antivirus software will usually warn you when it is due to be
updated. If your system clock is set a year behind, you may not
get those warnings. Fortunately most antivirus' are smart enough
to recognize a system clock set too far ahead or behind and will
warn you about changing it.
The Computer Virus Myths File
(10th Edition: October 4, 1993)
by Rob Rosenberger with Ross M. Greenberg
This document, included here as part of your pre-travel medical
package, is one of the finest myth-busting articles we've ever
seen. With the kind permission of the authors, we present it to
you in its entirely.
Note: Some of this material addresses rather technical myths
held by computer enthusiasts who have more buzzwords than
experience. You'll find this section much easier reading if you
stick with the specific concerns you have about viruses. Click
the topics in order to view the sections of this article.
Introduction
Definitions
Contents: 21 Computer Virus Myths
How to protect yourself
About the authors
Computer Virus Myths
Now you know the differences between a bug and a Trojan horse and
a virus. Let's get into some of the myths. Click the title for
an explanation of each of these myths:
All purposely destructive code spreads like a virus.
Viruses and Trojan horses are a recent phenomenon.
Viruses are written by teenage hackers.
Viruses infect 25% of all IBM PCs every month.
Only 500 different viruses? But most experts talk about them
in the thousands.
A virus could destroy all the files on my disks.
Viruses have been documented on over 300,000 computers
(1988).
Viruses can hide inside a data file.
Some viruses can completely hide themselves from all
antivirus software, making them truly undetectable.
BBSs and shareware programs spread viruses.
My computer could be infected if I call an infected BBS.
So-called `boot sector' viruses travel primarily in software
downloaded from BBSs.
My files are damaged, so it must have been a virus attack.
Donald Burleson was convicted of releasing a virus.
Robert Morris Jr. released a benign virus on a defense
network.
The U.S. government planted a virus in Iraqi military
computers during the Gulf War.
Viruses can spread to all sorts of computers.
My backups will be worthless if I back up a virus.
Antivirus software will protect me from viruses.
Read-only files are safe from virus infections.
Viruses can infect files on write-protected floppy disks.
A number of myths have surfaced about the threat of computer
viruses. There are myths about how widespread they are, how
dangerous they are, and even myths about what a computer virus
really is. We want you to know the facts.
The first thing you need to learn is that a computer virus falls
in the realm of malicious programming techniques known as Trojan
horses. All viruses are Trojan horses, but relatively few Trojan
horses can be called a virus.
That having been said, it's time to go over the terminology we
use when we lecture.Wrong. Remember, Trojan horse describes purposely
destructive
code in general. Very few Trojan horses actually qualify as
viruses. Newspaper magazine reporters tend to call almost
anything a virus because they often have no real understanding of
computer crime.
Trojan horses have existed since the first days of the computer;
hackers toyed with viruses in the early 1960s as a form of
amusement. Many different Trojan horse techniques have emerged
over the decades to embezzle money, destroy data, fool investors,
etc. The general public really didn't know of this problem until
the IBM PC revolution brought it into the spotlight. Banks still
hush up computerized embezzlements to this day because they
believe customers will lose faith in them if word gets out.
Yes, hackers have unleashed viruses -- but so has a computer
magazine publisher. And according to one trusted military
publication, the U.S. Defense Department creates computer viruses
for use as weapons. Trojan horses for many decades sprang from
the minds of middle-aged men; computer prices have only recently
dropped to a level where teenagers could get into the act. We
call people wormers when they abuse their knowledge of computers.
You shouldn't fear hackers just because some of them know how to
write viruses. This whole thing boils down to an ethics issue,
not a technology issue. Hackers know a lot about computers;
wormers abuse their knowledge. Hackers as a whole got a bum rap
when the mass media corrupted the term.
If 25% suffer an infection every month, then 100% would have a
virus every four months -- in other words, every IBM PC would
suffer an infection three times per year. This mythical estimate
surfaced in the media after researcher Peter Tippett wrote a
complex thesis on how viruses might spread in the future.
Computer viruses exist all over the planet, yes -- but they won't
take over the world. Only about 500 different viruses exist at
this time; many of them have never existed in the wild and some
have since been completely eliminated from the wild. You can
easily reduce your exposure to viruses with a few simple
precautions. Yes, it's still safe to turn on your computer!
The virus experts who claim much larger numbers usually work for
antivirus companies. They count even the most insignificant
variations for advertising purposes. When the Marijuana virus
first appeared, for example, it contained the word legalise, but
a miscreant later modified it to read legalize. Any program
which can detect the original virus can detect the version with
one letter changed -- but antivirus companies count them as two
viruses. These obscure differentiations quickly add up.
And take note: the majority of new computer viruses discovered
these days are only minor variations on well-known viruses.
Yes, and a spilled cup of coffee could do the same thing. You
can recover from any virus or coffee problem if you have adequate
backups of your data. Backups mean the difference between a
nuisance and a disaster. You can safely presume there has been
more accidental loss of data than loss by all viruses and Trojan
horses.
"Viruses have been documented on over 300,000 computers (1988)."
"Viruses have been documented on over 400,000 computers (1989)."
"The Michelangelo virus alone was estimated to be on over
5,000,000 computers (1992)."
These numbers originated from John McAfee, a self-styled virus
fighter who craves attention and media recognition. If we assume
it took him a mere five minutes to adequately document each viral
infection, it would have taken four man-years of effort to
document a problem only two years old by 1989. We further assume
McAfee's statements included every floppy disk ever infected up
to that time by a virus, as well as every computer involved in
the Christmas and Internet worm attacks. (Worms cannot be
included in virus infection statistics.)
McAfee prefers to estimate his totals these days and was
widely quoted during the Michelangelo virus hysteria in early
1992. Let's do some estimating ourselves by assuming about 80
million IBM PC-compatible computers around the world. McAfee's
estimate meant one out of every 16 of those computers not only
had a virus of some type, it specifically had the Michelangelo
virus. Many other virus experts considered it an astronomical
estimate based on the empirical evidence.
Data files can't wreak havoc on your computer -- only an
executable program file can do that (including the one that runs
every time you turn on or reboot a computer). If a virus
infected a data file, it would be a wasted effort. But let's be
realistic: what you think is data may actually be an executable
program file. For example, a batch file on an IBM PC contains
only text, yet DOS treats it just like an executable program.This myth
ironically surfaced when certain antivirus companies
publicized how they could detect so-called Mutation Engine
viruses. The myth gained national exposure in early 1993 when
the Associated Press printed excerpts from a new book about
viruses. Most viruses have a character-based signature which
identifies it both to the virus (so it doesn't infect a program
too many times) and to antivirus software (which uses the
signature to detect the virus). A Mutation Engine virus employs
an algorithm signature rather than a character-based signature --
but it still has a unique, readily identifiable signature.
The technique of using algorithm signatures really doesn't make
it any harder to detect a virus. You just have to do some
calculations to know the correct signature -- no big deal for an
antivirus program.
BBSs and shareware programs spread viruses.
Here's another scary myth, this one spouted as gospel by many
experts who claim to know how viruses spread. The truth, says PC
Magazine publisher Bill Machrone, is that all major viruses to
date were transmitted by (retail) packages and private mail
systems, often in universities. (PC Magazine, October 11, 1988.)
What Machrone said back then still applies today. Over 50 retail
companies have admitted spreading infected master disks to tens
of thousands of customers since 1988 -- compared to only nine
shareware authors who have spread viruses on master disks to less
than 300 customers since 1990.
Machrone goes on to say bulletin boards and shareware
authors work extraordinarily hard at policing themselves to keep
viruses out. Reputable sysops check every file for Trojan
horses; nationwide sysop networks help spread the word about
dangerous files. Yes, you should beware of the software you get
from BBSs and shareware authors, but you should also beware of
retail software found on store shelves.
By the way, many stores now routinely re-shrinkwrap returned
software and put it on the shelf again. Do you know for sure
only you ever touched those master disks?
BBSs can't write information on your disks -- the communications
software you use performs this task. You can only transfer a
dangerous file to your computer if you let your software do it.
And there is no 300bps subcarrier by which a virus can slip
through a modem. A joker who called himself Mike RoChenle (micro
channel, get it?) started this myth after leaving a techy-joke
message on a public network. Unfortunately, some highly
respected journalists got taken in by the joke.
This common myth -- touted as gospel even by experts -- expounds
on the supposed role bulletin boards play in spreading
infections. Boot sector viruses spread only if you directly copy
an infected floppy disk, or if you try to boot a computer from an
infected disk, or if you use a floppy in an infected computer.
BBSs deal exclusively with program files and don't pass along
copies of boot sectors. Bulletin board users thus have a natural
immunity to boot-sector viruses in downloaded software. (And
since the clear majority of infections stem from boot sector
viruses, this fact alone exonerates the BBS community as the
so-called primary source for the spread of viruses.)
We should make a special note about dropper programs developed by
virus researchers as an easy way to transfer boot sector viruses
among themselves. Since they don't replicate, dropper programs
don't qualify as viruses. These programs have never appeared on
BBSs to date and have no real use other than to transfer infected
boot sectors.
It also could have happened because of a power flux, or static
electricity, or a fingerprint on a floppy disk, or a bug in your
software, or perhaps a simple error on your part. Power
failures, spilled cups of coffee, and user errors have destroyed
more data than all viruses combined.
Newspapers all over the country hailed a 1989 Texas computer
crime trial as a virus trial. The defendant, Donald Burleson,
had released a destructive Trojan horse on his employer's
mainframe computer. The software in question couldn't spread to
other computers, and prosecuting attorney Davis McCown claimed he
never brought up the word virus during Burleson's trial. So why
did the media call it one?
David Kinney, an expert witness testifying for the defense,
claimed Burleson had unleashed a virus. The prosecuting attorney
didn't argue the point and we don't blame him -- Kinney's claim
may have actually swayed the jury to convict Burleson.
McCown gave reporters the facts behind the case and let them come
up with their own definitions. The Associated Press and USA
Today, among others, used such vague definitions that any program
would have qualified as a virus. If we applied their definitions
to the medical world, we could safely label penicillin as a
biological virus (which is, of course, absurd).
Robert Morris Jr. released a benign virus on a defense network.
It supposedly may have been benign, but it wasn't a virus.
Morris, the son of a chief computer scientist at the U.S.
National Security Agency, decided one day to take advantage of
bugs in the software which controls Internet, a network the
Defense Department often uses. These tiny bugs let Morris send a
worm throughout the network. Among other things, the Internet
worm sent copies of itself to other computers -- and clogged the
entire network in a matter of hours due to bugs in the worm
module itself. The press called it a virus, like it called the
1987 Christmas worm a virus, because it spread to other
computers. Yet Morris's work didn't infect any computers.
A few notes:
Reporters finally started calling it a worm a year after the
fact, but only because lawyers on both sides of the case
constantly referred to it as a worm.
The worm operated only on Sun-3 VAX computers which employ the
UNIX operating system and which were specifically linked into
Internet at the time of the attack.
The 6,200 affected computers cannot be counted in virus
infection statistics (they weren't infected).
It cost way less than $98 million to clean up the attack. An
official Cornell University report claims John McAfee, the man
behind this wild estimate, was probably serving (him)self in an
effort to drum up business. People familiar with the case
estimated the final figure at slightly under $1 million.
Yes, Morris could easily have added some infection code to make
it both a worm and a virus if he'd had the urge.
Internet gurus have since fixed the bugs Morris exploited in the
attack.
Morris went on trial for launching the worm and received a
federal conviction. The Supreme Court refused to hear his case,
so the conviction stands.
The U.S. government planted a virus in Iraqi military computers
during the Gulf War.
U.S. News World Report in early 1992 claimed the National
Security Agency had replaced a computer chip in a printer bound
for Iraq just before the Gulf War with a secret computer chip
containing a virus. The magazine cited two unidentified senior
U.S. officials as their source, saying once the virus was in the
(Iraqi computer) system, ...each time an Iraqi technician opened
a `window' on his computer screen to access information, the
contents of the screen simply vanished.
Yet the USNWR story shows amazing similarities to a 1991
April Fool's joke published by InfoWorld magazine. Most computer
experts dismiss the USNWR story as a hoax -- an urban legend
innocently created by the InfoWorld joke.
Some notes:
USNWR continues to stand by its story, but did publish a
clarification stating it could not be confirmed that the (virus)
was ultimately successful. The editors broke with tradition by
declining to print any letters readers had submitted about it.
Ted Koppel, a well-known American news anchor, opened one of his
Nightline broadcasts with a report on the alleged virus.
Koppel's staff politely refers people to talk with USNWR about
the story's validity.
InfoWorld didn't label their story as fiction, but the last
paragraph identified it as an April Fool's joke.
The design of all Trojan horses limits them to a family of
computers, something especially true for viruses. A virus
written for IBM PCs cannot infect an IBM 4300 series mainframe,
nor can it infect a Commodore C-64, nor can it infect an Apple
Macintosh.
But take note: some computers can now run software written for
other types of computers. An Apple Macintosh, with the right
products, can run IBM PC software for example. If one type of
computer can run software written for another type of computer,
then it can also catch viruses written for the other type of
computer.
No, they won't. Let's suppose a virus does get backed up with
your files. You can restore important documents and databases
and spreadsheets -- your valuable data -- without restoring an
infected program. You just reinstall the programs from master
disks. It's tedious work, but not as hard as some people claim.
There is no such thing as a foolproof antivirus program. Viruses
and other Trojan horses can be (and have been) designed to bypass
them. Antivirus products also can be tricky to use at times and
they occasionally have bugs. Always use a good set of backups as
your first line of defense; rely on antivirus software only as a
second line of defense.
This common myth among IBM PC users has appeared even in some
computer magazines. Supposedly, you can protect yourself by
using the ATTRIB command to set the read-only attribute on
program files. Yet ATTRIB is software -- what it can do, a virus
can undo. The ATTRIB command cannot halt the spread of most
viruses.
Another common IBM PC myth. If viruses can modify read-only
files, people assume they can also modify files on
write-protected disks. However, the disk drive itself knows when
a floppy has a write-protect tab and refuses to write to the
disk. You can't override an IBM PC drive's write-protect sensor
with a software command.
How to protect yourself
We hope this dispels the many computer virus myths. Viruses do
exist, they are out there, they want to spread to other
computers, and they can cause you problems. But you can defend
yourself with a cool head and a good set of backups.
The following guidelines can shield you from viruses and
other Trojan horses. They will lower your chances of getting
infected and raise your chances of recovering from an attack.
Be religious about backups
Implement a procedure to regularly back up your files and follow
it religiously. We can't emphasize this enough! Consider
purchasing a user-friendly program or a tape backup device to
take the drudgery out of this task. You'll find plenty of
inexpensive programs and tape backup hardware to choose from.
Rotate between backups
Rotate between at least two sets of backups for better security
(use set #1, then set #2, then set #1...). The more sets you
use, the better protection you have. Many people take a master
backup of their entire hard disk, then take a number of
incremental backups of files which have changed since the last
time they backed up. Incremental backups might only require five
minutes of your time each day.
Set your BIOS to bypass floppy drive seek at boot
Many IBM PC computers now have a BIOS option to ignore floppy
drives during the bootup process. Consult your computer's
documentation to see if you can set this option. It will greatly
reduce your exposure to boot sector viruses (the most common type
of computer virus).
Watch where your software comes from
Download files only from reputable BBSs where the sysop checks
every program for Trojan horses. If you're still afraid,
consider getting programs from a BBS or disk vendor company which
obtains files direct from the authors.
Let a newly uploaded file mature on a BBS for one or two
weeks before you download it (others will put it through its
paces).
Use UP-TO-DATE antivirus software
Consider using a program that searches (scans) for known viruses.
Almost all infections involve viruses known to antivirus
companies. A recent version (no more than four months old) of
any scanning program will in all probability identify a virus
before it can infect your computer. But remember: there is no
perfect antivirus defense.
Consider using a program that creates a unique signature of
all the programs on your computer. Run this software once in
awhile to see if any of your program files have been modified --
either by a virus or perhaps just by a stray gamma ray.
Don't panic!
Don't panic if your computer starts acting weird. You might have
a virus, but then again you might not. Immediately turn off all
power to your computer and disconnect it from any local area
networks. Reboot from a write-protected copy of your master DOS
disk. Don't run any programs on a regular disk -- you might
activate a Trojan horse. If you don't have adequate backups, try
to bring them up-to-date. (Yes, you might back up a virus as
well, but it can't hurt you if you don't use your normal
programs.) Set your backups off to the side. Only then can you
safely hunt for problems.
If you can't figure out the problem and you don't know what
to do next, just turn off your computer and call for help.
Consider calling a local computer group before you call for an
expert. If you need a professional, consider a regular computer
consultant first. (Some virus removal experts charge prices far
beyond their actual value.)
If you discover a new virus or trojan, tell the world
We'd appreciate it if you would mail us a copy of any Trojan
horse or virus you discover. (Be careful you don't damage the
data on your disks while trying to do this!) Include as much
information as you can and put a label on the disk saying it
contains a malicious program. Send it to Ross M. Greenberg,
Software Concepts Design, Virus Acres, New Kingston, NY 12459.
Thank you.
About the authors
Ross M. Greenberg writes both shareware and retail virus
detection removal programs. (Products aren't mentioned by name
because this treatise isn't the place for advertisements.) He
serves as a sysop for the Virus Security RoundTable on GEnie and
is also currently working on a number of other products having
nothing to do with computer viruses.
Rob Rosenberger serves as lead sysop for CompuServe's
SHAREWARE forum. He has researched computer virus myths hoaxes
since 1988. His research on the cause of the Michelangelo virus
scare of 1992 has been reprinted in ISPNews (a computer security
industry newsletter); and he has consulted on computer virus data
security books written by Janet Endrijonas, Pamela Kane, and
Richard B. Levin.
These men communicated entirely by modem while writing this
treatise.
Rosenberger can be reached electronically on CompuServe as
(74017,1344), on GEnie as R.ROSENBERGE, on Internet as
[log in to unmask], and on various national BBS linkups.
Greenberg can be reached electronically on MCImail and BIX and
GEnie as `greenber', on Internet as [log in to unmask], and on
CompuServe as (72461,3212).
You may give copies of this treatise to anyone if you pass
it along unmodified and in its entirety. We especially encourage
antivirus vendors and book authors to bundle it with their
products as a public service.
Printed publications may reprint this treatise in whole or in
part, at no charge, if they give due credit to the authors.
For-profit publications must submit two copies to: Rob
Rosenberger, P.O. Box 1115, O'Fallon, IL 62269. Book
publications need only submit one copy. Non-profit publications
do not have to submit any copies.
Copyright 1988,93 Rob Rosenberger Ross M. Greenberg
Modified for Windows Help December 1995 by Cub Lea for Dynamic
Living Media
Virus Myths: Definitions
BBS (Bulletin Board System)
Bug
Hacker
Shareware
Trojan horse
Virus
Worm
Wormers
If you have a modem, you can call a BBS and leave messages,
transfer computer files back forth, and learn a lot about
computers. (What you're reading right now, for example, most
likely came to you from a BBS.)
An accidental flaw in the logic of a program which makes it do
things it shouldn't be doing. Programmers don't mean to put bugs
in their programs, but they always creep in. Programmers often
spend more time debugging programs than they do writing them in
the first place. Inadvertent bugs have caused more data loss
than all viruses combined.
Someone who really loves computers and who wants to push them to
the limit. Hackers have a healthy sense of curiosity: they try
doorknobs just to see if they're locked, for example. They also
love to tinker with a piece of equipment until it's just right.
The entire computer revolution itself is largely a result of
hackers.
A distribution method for quality software available on a try
before you buy basis. You must pay for it if you continue using
it after the trial period. Shareware authors let you download
their programs from BBSs and encourage you to give evaluation
copies to friends. Many shareware applications rival their
retail-shelf counterparts at a fraction of the price. (You must
pay for the shareware you continue to use --otherwise you're
stealing software.)
A generic term describing a set of computer instructions
purposely hidden inside a program. Trojan horses tell programs
to do things you don't expect them to do. The term comes from
the legendary battle in which the ancient city of Troy received a
large wooden horse to commemorate a fierce battle. The gift
secretly held enemy soldiers in its belly and, when the Trojans
rolled it into their fortified city, well, you know the story.
A term for a very specialized Trojan horse which spreads to other
computers by secretly infecting programs with a copy of itself.
A virus is the only type of Trojan horse which is contagious,
much like the common cold. If a Trojan horse doesn't meet this
definition, then it isn't a virus.
A term similar to a Trojan horse, but there is no gift involved.
If the Trojans had left that wooden horse outside the city, they
wouldn't have been attacked from inside the city. Worms, on the
other hand, can bypass your defenses without having to deceive
you into dropping your guard. An example would be a program
designed to spread itself by exploiting bugs in a network
software package. Worms usually come from someone who has
legitimate access to the computer or network.
What we call people who unleash Trojan horses onto an
unsuspecting public. Let's face it, these people aren't angels.
What they do hurts us. They deserve our disrespect.
Viruses, like all Trojan horses, purposely make a program do
things you don't expect it to do. Some viruses will just annoy
you, perhaps only displaying a Peace on earth greeting. The
viruses we worry about will try to erase your data (the most
valuable asset of your computer!) and waste your valuable time in
recovering from an attack.American Standard Code for Information Interchange
(ASCII)
A standard character-to-number encoding widely used in the
computer industry. Originally the numerical control (NC) tape
punch format with odd parity (odd number of holes per tape row)
used when paper tape was the common method used for storing
computer information. Now used mainly to define the set of
characters used in most computers as keyboard-enterable
characters (a total of 256)
anonymous FTP
Anonymous FTP allows a user to retrieve documents, files,
programs, and other archived data from anywhere in the Internet
without having to establish a userid (a unique user name for the
specific system) and password. By using the special userid of
"anonymous" the network user will bypass local security checks
and will have access to publicly available files on the remote
system.
Ashton-Tate dBASE
Ashton-Tate is the American firm responsible for dBASE, the most
popular database management system in existence still for
IBM-compatibles even though a Windows version was not released
until 1994. Dbase is also used as novice slang for any database
management system.
baud
Operational cycles per second in a communication network. This
is often confused with bytes per second or bits per second . For
practical purposes they have the same meaning but they do not
refer to the same type of measurement; it's just a coincidence
that the successful transmission of one bit of data was also a
baud measurement. Bits per second on a serial connection is
actually the baud rate . This term comes from J.M.E. Baudot
(1845-1903), a French pioneer in printing telegraphy.
If in doubt, think of baud as the actual number of bits
transferred or transferrable via hardwarebetween the remote and
host computer, and bits per second as the number of bits
transferrable via software . Data compression techniques allow
14.4Kbaud modems to transfer up to 57.6Kbps of data, but remember
that this data is compressed . The modem itself will only allow
14.4Kbps of data to pass through its hardware.
bookmark (hotlist)
A bookmark is a saved location on the Internet used to reference
a specific document, or a URL saved to a file. Hotlist items are
the same as bookmarks. The use of each of these terms depends on
the individual program; hotlists are usually associated with NCSA
Mosaic and bookmark with Netscape.
browser
Software designed for the purpose of examining the contents of
files, usually text or table data, in an understandable fashion.
Commonly refers to Web browser, or World Wide Web browsing tool,
although it can mean anything from a program designed for reading
text files to a viewer for graphical images.
Byte Information Exchange (BIX)
BIX is an online information service designed for readers of
Byte! Magazine which was quite popular in the late 1980s and
survives to this day.
Center for Innovative Computer Applications (CICA)
Located at the University of Indiana, this computing research
center is best known as the home of the CICA Windows Archive ,
the most complete and best-maintained Windows software archive on
the Internet in 1994/95. Mirrored at several sites around the
world, CICA has practically become synonymous with Windows
software on the Internet, in spite of the fact that the SimTel
Windows archive is actually better-organized for World Wide Web
users in particular and by the time you read this, may actually
have a larger database.
client
A computer system or process that requests a service of another
computer system or process. A workstation requesting the
contents of a file from a file server is a client of the file
server. [Source: NNSC] Also a program which processes data
retrieved from a remote system, or the purchaser of online access
services.CompuServe Information Services
One of the oldest and certainly the most venerable of the
commercial online services, CompuServe has boasted the largest
subscribership of any American commercial online service for
years. Like America Online, CompuServe came under fire from
veteran Internet users for opening a net gateway through CIS with
what was looked upon as less than an ideal introduction to
Internet customs and behavior.
cracker
A cracker is an individual who attempts to access computer
systems without authorization. These individuals are often
malicious, as opposed to hackers, and have many means at their
disposal for breaking into a system. The term was coined circa.
1985 by hackers in defense against journalistic misuse of the
term "hacker".
Also refers to hackers who attempt to break copy-protection and
registration schemes in software, as in "This new game was
cracked to work without registering it". Also refers to software
used in the software cracking process.
Data compression
Data compression is the process of reducing the storage
requirements of data through the use of algorithms and
mathematical formulae while still leaving the data useful.
Compressed data is uncompressed using software designed for the
task when the data is needed by the system.
Data compression is used primarily to reduce disk space
requirements for data so that it can be archived in less physical
space, but more recently the growth of the Internet has made
reduced transmission time at least as important.
Two classes of compression
There are two basic classes of data compression: lossy and
lossless . Lossy compression reduces the level of detail in the
data being compressed and provides no facility for restoring that
lost detail at a later date. It is used primarily with audio and
video data where some loss of detail can be tolerated for the
sake of reduced space requirement or transmission time. JPEG,
GIF and MPEG are examples of lossy compression.
Lossless compression stores all information about the data being
compressed so that it can be restored to its complete, unaltered
original form at a later date. PKZIP, Doublespace/Stacker and
compressed backup sets are examples of lossless compression.
Several types of compression
Compression can either be performed on individual files, multiple
files (also known as archiving) or whole areas of a disk or other
storage medium (also known as disk compression).
Data compression often refers to a method of compressing data for
transmission over telecommunications circuits such as modems.
Most modems have data compression software encoded directly into
their chips, and the use of this software, which is usually
recommended for modem communications, allows modems to send and
receive data at much higher than their advertised baud rate.
Using data compression, a 28.8kbaud modem can send and receive
even files which have already been compressed at a rate of up to
35 kbaud, and send and receive text at up to 115kbaud.
!CloseWindow(`morehelp')
download/upload
Refer to the process of copying a file from a host system to
another computer or medium. There are several different methods,
or protocols, for downloading files in telecommunications, most
of which periodically check the file as it is being copied to
ensure no information is inadvertently destroyed or damaged
during the process. Some, such as XMODEM, only let you download
one file at a time. Others, such as batch-YMODEM and ZMODEM, let
you type in the names of several files at once, which are then
automatically downloaded.
Transferring newsgroups and email messages is also referred to as
downloading; as is transferring data from one source to another,
for example downloading files for backup to a floppy disk.
electronic mail (email)
A system whereby a computer user can exchange messages with other
computer users (or groups of users) via a communications network.
Electronic mail is one of the most popular uses of the Internet.
[Source: NNSC]
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
A protocol which allows a user on one host to access, and
transfer files to and from, another host over a network.
Additionally, with command-line interfaces such as DOS and UNIX,
FTP is usually the name of the program the user types to execute
the protocol. It is defined in STD 9, RFC 959.
GEnie
General Electric's international online service. A serious
competitor with CompuServe for many years, GEnie's market share
has dropped considerably in the 1990s, and while it is still much
loved by users it is no longer considered to be in the top three.
Graphics Interchange Format (GIF)
A format for coding computer graphic images using data
compression copyrighted by CompuServe. Until 1996 the most common
graphics format used on the Internet; CompuServe asserted its
copyright late in 1994 and while end users may make use of the
format without payment to CompuServe, commercial users may not.
GIF is a bitmapped graphics format capable of 256 colors and
unique features such as embedded commenting and interlacing.
Soon to be replaced in popularity by formats such as PNG
(Portable Network Graphics).
GZIP
GNU ZIP , a file compression utility created and released by the
Free Software Foundation which can be used on a variety of
platforms without the royalty payments required by PKZIP and most
other popular file compression schemes. GZIP archives usually
have a .GZ extension, or simply a .Z extension, and may also be
preprocessed with tar.host
A computer that allows users to communicate with other host
computers on a network. Individual users communicate by using
application programs, such as electronic mail, TELNET and file
transfer protocol (FTP) . [Source: NNSC]
Internet Relay Chat (IRC)
A world-wide "party line" protocol that allows one to converse
with others in real time using keyboard input. IRC is structured
as a network of servers, each of which accepts connections from
client programs, one per user. [Source: The Jargon File 3.0.0]
Internet service provider
A firm or organization that provides access to Internet services
such as email, newsgroups, IRC and World Wide Web. Generally
refers to a provider offering a full range of Internet services
as opposed to a gateway.
Joint Pictures Experts Group (JPEG)
This acronym is more often used to refer to the graphics
compression standard developed by JPEG than to refer to the JPEG
organization itself. JPEG is a form of lossy compression with a
number of possible options which allows reduction of true-color
(16 million color) graphics data to a fraction of its original
size. It represents the next stage in graphics processing for
transportability, speed and archiving from GIF's compression,
offering average reductions of as much as 1/24th original size.
JPEG is known as a lossy compression scheme because it reduces
the level of detail in the image as a part of the compression
process, and this detail is not restored when the image is
uncompressed for viewing. JPEG is the second most popular
graphics format on the World Wide Web next to GIF.
link (hyperlink)
Telecommunications: a way to connect two Internet resources via a
simple word, phrase or graphical object on which a user can click
to start the connection. [Source: "EFF's Guide to the Internet"]
General computing: refers to the same process when used in
hypertext documents such as this helpfile; the hotspots in this
helpfile are links.
Also: programming term used to refer to methods of joining bits
of code so that the compiler knows how to read the code required
for building a program.
Linux
A free version of a clone of the UNIX System V Release 3.0
designed specifically for use on IBM-compatibles. Created by
Linus Torvalds of Norway, it was exceptionally well-received and
supported with help, source code, applications and other
contributions - most of them also free - to the point where it
has become the operating system of choice for low- to
medium-volume Internet providers. It is available free on
bulletin boards, FTP sites and inexpensive CDs (US$20 and under,
more with manuals) containing the full operating system and a
huge array of applications, utilities and source code are widely
available.
Local Area Network (LAN)
A data network intended to serve an area of only a few square
kilometers or less. Because the network is known to cover only a
small area, optimizations can be made in the network signal
protocols that permit data rates up to 100Mb/s. [Source: NNSC]
Usually used to refer to small and medium-sized office-type
networks or to large networks contained within a single physical
location.
mailing list
A list of email addresses, used by a mail exploder, to forward
messages to groups of people. Generally, a mailing list is used
to discuss certain set of topics, and different mailing lists
discuss different topics. A mailing list may be moderated. This
means that messages sent to the list are actually sent to a
moderator who determines whether or not to send the messages on
to everyone else. Requests to subscribe to, or leave, a mailing
list should always be sent to the list's "-request" address
(e.g., [log in to unmask] for the IETF mailing list).
Microcom Network Protocol level 5 (MNP-5)
A protocol for communications developed by Microcom that allowed
data compression on data transmission (usually) over telephone
lines. Still found in many newer modems, replaced by CCITT
protocols such as V.42. There are several versions of MNP error
correction; the only one in common use other than MNP-5 is MNP-4.mirror
Two common meanings. With PCs, mirror refers to the act of
copying the contents of a disk or section of a disk to another
disk for purposes of archive storage or backup. It was not
commonly used on PCs due to the high cost of hard disks, but with
newer hard disks priced at half or less the cost per megabyte of
floppy disks, many users now use a second or third hard disk as
their backup unit.
On the Internet, mirror can refer to either the act of mirroring
a disk or part of a disk to another disk (often thousands of
miles away) for the purpose of duplication, or to the site where
the mirror is stored. For example, many popular FTP sites mirror
their archives to several different mirror sites every night.
Having multiple copies of a popular archive allows the host site
to spread the workload among several remote sites so it is not
constantly tied up with people attempting to download.
Mosaic (NCSA and other)
The first high-quality World Wide Web browser program to use a
graphic user interface and allow viewing of graphics on the
screen instead of using an external picture viewer. Developed by
the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the
University of Illinois, this was the standard by which browser
software was measured until the release of Netscape 0.87 in 1994.
As of late 1995 it was still considered to be one of the three
best programs of its kind, and is available for all major
computer platforms. Even as late as fall of 1995, Web browsers
were often referred to as "mosaics" and the term (uncapitalized)
appears to have passed into common usage as indicating a World
Wide Web browser.
NCSA's Mosaic code has been used as the core software for several
of the most popular browsers available today.
Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME)
An extension to Internet email which provides the ability to
transfer non-textual data, such as graphics, audio and fax. It
is defined in RFC 1341. MIME is the transmission protocol used
to transfer non-text data associated with formatted HTML text
over the World Wide Web. (In other words, graphics and sound are
transmitted as MIME and decoded at the remote computer prior to
use.)
National Security Agency (NSA)
A US government agency whose purpose is to protect the internal
security of the United States. Next to the Republican National
Caucus, the most feared group of all among knowledgeable American
Internet users. The agency most ardent in their push for the
institution of the Clipper chip.
Netscape
Usually refers to Netscape Navigator, the most popular Internet
interface program in use in 1995. Also refers to Netscape
Communications, the company responsible for designing and
distributing Netscape Navigator. Netscape markets a wide range
of Internet software for both end users and providers at all
levels, from their consumer-level browser to the most popular
secure commerce server in use by private Internet service
providers to high-end vendor distribution servers and databases
costing upwards of $100,000.
Also used as an adjective to describe features of HTML coding and
Web page design which were made possible by extensions to the
HTML formatting language proposed and first implemented by
Netscape Communications.
network
A computer network is a data communications system which
interconnects computer systems at various different sites. A
network may be composed of any combination of LANs, MANs or WANs.
online, offline
Connected or disconnected from a network or resource. When your
hard disk is disconnected from your computer, it is "offline".
online service
A service, either networked or stand-alone, set up to provide
information, messaging, or other forms of information for a group
of people and managed by a central organization. Usually used as
a generic term for any pay-for-play dialup information service.
Examples of consumer-oriented online services include GEnie,
CompuServe, America Online and Prodigy. May or may not provide
Internet services or Internet gateway services, usually offered
and advertised as self-contained databases.
page
In general computing, page has two meanings.
A page usually refers to a block of data designed to be moved in
and out of memory as needed. The size of this block depends on
the application creating the page. EMS uses pages of memory 64K
in size to manage applications needing more than the base 640k of
memory allowed by DOS. ROM's also use pages to accelerate the
movement of ROM data to and from the computer, improving the
performance of the system. Text mode DOS also uses a page, 4096
bytes in length, for handling text graphics.
It can also refer to a screenful of text information in DOS text
mode. A single screen of data is referred to as a screen page .
In telecommunications, page can refer either to the act of
requesting a response from someone via a remote device, or a
formatted document available on the World Wide Web. All
HTML-formatted documents on the Web are referred to as pages.port
Networking: A port is a "transport layer demultiplexing value".
Each application has a unique port number associated with it.
Commonly used port addresses for Internet applications are port
21 for FTP, port 80 for HTTP (World Wide Web), port 6667 for
Internet Relay Chat (IRC) etc.
Personal computing: ports are also physical addresses in PCs
designed to increase the flexibility of the computer; e.g. the
average personal computer has at least three hardware ports
available at all times: two serial ports (usually one for modem
and one for mouse) and one parallel (usually used for the
printer).
Serial ports are used for devices that accept information one bit
at a time. Parallel ports are used for devices that accept
information eight bits at a time and are generally faster than
serial ports. You can assign network paths to a port; for
example, if you are printing to a network printer.
Portable Network Graphics (PNG)
A format for graphics images gaining in popularity and expected
to replace GIF (Graphics Interchange Format) as the graphics
format of choice on the Internet some time in 1996/97.
posting
A submitted email message or newsgroup article. So named,
because like posting to a bookkeeping ledger or sending letter
through the post office, once it's sent, it can't be taken back.
root
The top level of a disk drive or directory structure. In DOS,
C:\ is considered to be the normal root on the vast majority of
PCs. Root can also refer to the directory to which a user of a
shared computer system is directed to automatically upon login
regardless of where that directory might be on a particular
computer. Can also refer to the superuser or system
administrator's account on a shared system.
search engine
Technically speaking, software on a host system designed to
handle database queries by remote users and return the results to
the remote user via a network connection.
Slang: the interface between a remote user of a database and the
database itself; as in "Just fill in the form on this search
engine and it will tell you what you can find here."
shell account
A special type of account available from most Internet service
providers. Allows direct command-line access to the host system.
Advantages: the ability to work directly with the host computer
as if the user was sitting directly in front of it.
Disadvantages: difficulty in acquiring and implementing software
designed for more advanced graphical user interface (GUI)
features of the World Wide Web.
signature
The three or four line message at the bottom of a piece of email
or a USENET article which identifies the sender. Often used as a
method of personalizing USENET postings and email. Many include
quotes, small ASCII drawings or advertising. Large signatures
(over five lines) are generally frowned upon.
SimTel
SIMTEL20 is the White Sands Missile Range which used to maintain
a giant collection of free and low-cost software of all kinds,
which was "mirrored" to numerous other ftp sites on the Net. In
the fall of 1993, the Air Force decided it had better things to
do than maintain a free software library and shut it down. But
the collection lives on, now maintained by a Michigan company.
[Source: "EFF's Guide to the Internet"] SimTel is the world's
most popular Internet archive for MS-DOS software and one of the
two most popular archives for Windows; the other is CICA at the
University of Indiana.
site
Generic term; a location -- any location -- where data is stored
or where users can log into the net or parts of it. Site and
domain are not the same thing. If you are online right now, you
are currently connected to your provider from your own client
site, or remote site, to the provider's host site. From there
you can access other host sites.spike, line surge
A sharp, short-term increase in voltage through electrical
circuits, feared by computer users due to the capacity of a line
surge to fry electronic components.
Sun Microsystems
Manufacturer of high-powered microcomputers based in the US,
their workstation computers have been the computers of choice for
high-end graphical applications and commercial Internet service
providers (the IBM-compatible has become more popular in recent
years thanks to the growth of the Linux and BSD operating systems
and the advent of parallel processing with the Pentium series
chip).
sysadmin/admin
System administrator; person who maintains a network or computer
system.
sysop
System operator; refers usually to the operator of a bulletin
board system.
terminal
Refers either to a diskless workstation (a monitor, keyboard and
perhaps a mouse and a minimal processor) connected to a network
or a hardware pin or connector end. Usually confused with
terminal emulator; a terminal emulator is what most PCs use for
connecting to dialup networks such as BBS' and Internet.
terminal emulator
A program that allows a computer to emulate a terminal. The
workstation thus appears as a terminal to the remote host.
[Source: MALAMUD] On PCs terminal emulators are needed for
connecting to BBS' and TELNET sites. Terminal emulators are
often incorrectly referred to as "terminal programs" or "modem
programs"
Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
An Internet address, generally offered in World Wide
Web-compatible syntax. Follows a standard format, which includes
the protocol, followed by a colon and two forward slashes,
followed by the domain, followed by the physical or aliased
address of the file or program requested.
Example:
http://www.netfolks.com/total/farsighted.html
http:// signifies that the protocol is hypertext transfer;
www.netfolks.com specifies the host computer where the resource
is located, and /total/farsighted.html specifies that the
resource is a file called farsighted.html located in a directory
either called total or aliased so that total will direct the
user to the appropriate directory.
urban legend
A story, which may have started with a grain of truth, that has
been embroidered and retold until it has passed into the realm of
myth. It is an interesting phenonmenon that these stories get
spread so far, so fast and so often. Urban legends never die,
they just end up on the Internet! Some legends that periodically
make their rounds include "The Infamous Modem Tax," "Craig
Shergold/Brain Tumor/Get Well Cards," and "The $250 Cookie
Recipe". [Source: LAQUEY]
USENET (Netnews)
The sum total of a collection of thousands of topically named
newsgroups (public messaging discussion groups devoted to a
particular topic), the computers which run the protocols, and the
people who read and submit USENET news. Not all Internet hosts
subscribe to USENET and not all USENET hosts are on the Internet.
[Source: NWNET] Archaic: Netnews.
V.xx data conversion standards
V.xx denotes the standard for data conversion used by a given
modem and indicates its capability for built-in error correction
and data compression. Standards for V.xx are laid down by CCITT.
V.14 : A standard in data conversion used in all V.32 and V.32bis
modems
V.17 : The CCITT standard that specifies fax transmission and
reception at 14,400 bps.
V.21 : The CCITT standard that specifies modem transmission at
300 bps.
V.22 : The CCITT standard that specifies modem transmission at
1200 bps with a fallback rate of 600 bps. (Fallback rate is the
transmission rate used by both ends of the connection if they
fail to achieve a stable connection at the highest transmission
rate.)
V.22bis : The CCITT standard that specifies modem transmission at
2400 bps.
V.32: The CCITT standard that specifies modem transmission at
9600 bps with a fallback rate of 4800 bps.
V.32bis : The CCITT standard that specifes modem transmission at
14,400 bps with a fallback rate of 12,000 and 7200 bps.
V.32terbo : An unofficial standard that specifies modem
transmission at 19,200 bps with a fallback rate of 16,800 and
also the rates supported by V.32 and V.32 bis.
V.34: A CCITT standard that specifies modem transmission at
28,800 bps with many fallback rates.
V.42: A CCITT error correction protocol which includes MNP levels
1-4 and supports LAP/M error correction.
V.42bis : A CCITT standard for data compression. A modem
equipped with V.42 bis also includes V.42 error correction and
MNP-5 data compression. Almost all new modems being sold today
comply with V.42bis .
V.FAST: An unofficial standard that specifies modem transmission
at 28,800 bps with fallback rates. This is also known as V.FC, a
standard proposed and marketed by US Robotics and not supported
by the industry. Most consumer experts recommend avoiding
high-speed V.FAST modems which are not upgradeable with software.
warez
Hacker slang for pirated (illegal or unlicensed) software.
Warezing is the practice of trading in pirated software, usually
as a hobby but often as a means of acquiring software tools the
user would not otherwise be able to afford or wish to purchase.
World Wide Web (WWW or W3)
A hypertext-based, distributed information system created by
researchers at CERN in Switzerland. Users may create, edit or
browse hypertext documents. One of the newest Internet services,
it has grown in a very short time to become the most-used service
on the net. Many novice users mistakenly refer to the Web as the
Internet itself, when in fact it is only one of several available
services.
Most WWW documents incorporate graphics, and the limit as to what
such documents may incorporate (e.g. sound, animation, etc.) is
virtually unlimited. The clients and servers are freely
available, and many commercial implementations are also in use.
The 80x86 Chip Chart
80x86 is a generic term used to refer to the part number
designation for the Intel line of microprocessors used as CPUs in
IBM-compatible computers and other electronics. The same numbers
have been used by other manufacturers, including Cyrix, AMD,
Texas Instruments and others to describe their versions of chips
with virtually identical characteristics and performance.
The following is a table of the most popular chips in the series
and their relative capabilities. Select the chip number to see
more information or simply scroll through this topic to see
information about all chips on this list.
8088 8086 8087 80186
80286 80287 80386SX 80386DX
80387 80386SL 80486DX 80486DX2
80487DX80486SX 80486DLC80586, 80686
P-5 P-6 P-24
8088 : First IBM-PC CPU chip; operated at a speed of 3.5MHz on an
8-bit bus. Engineered to address a maximum of 1Mb of memory; can
address up to 32Mb with expanded memory cards. Also known
(slang) as the PC chip.
8086 : Next generation IBM-PC/XT (Extended Technology) CPU;
operated at speeds of 4.77MHz to 10MHz depending on the model and
manufacturer (some clone chips were somewhat faster). First chip
to offer two-speed operation; the faster speed is known as
"turbo", and this two-speed capability continues up to the 486.
Also known (slang) as the XT chip .
8087 : Math coprocessor chip for 8088/8086 CPUs, and also usable
on systems up to and including many 80386's which contained
sockets for these chips. Floating point math processor offered a
significant performance increase for CAD and spreadsheet
operations and made these applications barely livable. Usually
cost more than the CPU itself.
80186 : First IBM-PC/AT (Advanced Technology) CPU; operated at
speeds of 6MHz to 12MHz on a 16-bit bus . Intel's limp response
to Motorola's 68000 microprocessor; short-lived in the
marketplace since the 286 was released soon afterward and 186
motherboards were prone to buggy behavior and early failure.
Introduced extended memory; the ability to add memory above 1Mb
and address it through the use of software memory managers .
Also known (slang) as the 186.
80286 : First serious IBM-PC/AT CPU. The chip that truly set the
AT standard. Operated at speeds of 6MHz to 30MHz on a 16-bit
bus. Permitted the same extended memory capability as the 286.
80287 : Math coprocessor chip for the 80286 series. Beginning
with the 80287, the coprocessor had to be speed-matched to the
CPU chip, meaning that an 80287 16MHz would not ordinarily be
usable when matched with an 80286 12MHz CPU. These coprocessors
were also usable on many 386 motherboards as inexpensive
alternatives to true 80387 math coprocessors. Usually cost as
much as the CPU itself.
80386SX : Next in line after the 80286; operated at speeds of
16MHz to 33MHz on a 16-bit bus. Originally introduced on IBM's
Personal System/2 computers. Introduced the facilty for Shadow
RAM (the ability to map ROM memory into RAM for higher system
performance). The chip that made GUI's on IBM-compatibles
possible years after everyone using the Motorola 68000 had them.
Also known (slang) as the 386 or 386SX.
80386DX : Offered twice the potential power of the SX and made
Windows a viable operating system.
Also allowed for two types of memory at two different speeds,
specifically for "cache" memory to accelerate most-used functions
such as screen display rewrites and disk access. Operated at
speeds of 20MHz to 33MHz (Intel models) and up to 40MHz (AMD
clone chips) on a 32-bit bus. The chip that made OS/2 a viable
operating system for the IBM-compatible. Also known (slang) as
the 386DX or 386; still used in some home electronics (e.g.
microwave ovens); no longer manufactured for PCs by Intel as of
1994.
80386SL : The L was usually said to refer to Laptop , but in
reality it stands for L ow power consumption; designed for laptop
computers. Functionally identical to the 80386SX.
80387 : Math coprocessor chip for the 80386 CPU series. These
made fractals, raytracing and other high-quality graphics and
animation livable on IBM-compatibles. Beginning with the 80387,
the coprocessor had to be not merely speed-matched to the CPU
chip but bus matched as well, meaning that an 80387DX 20MHz
coprocessor (32-bit bus) would not ordinarily be usable when
matched with an 80386SX 20MHz (16-bit bus) CPU. Usually cost
slightly less than the CPU.
80486DX : The original 486 chip; true 32-bit operation, includes
a built-in math coprocessor. Operated at speeds ranging from
20MHz to 50MHz. Significant speed improvements over the 386 are
due in part to the coprocessor and also in part to an ultra-fast
8K cache housed in the CPU itself which processed the most
frequently accessed instructions at speeds much higher than RAM
memory. The chip that made Windows 95 possible and OS/2 livable.
Early models of 486DX chips were known for excessive heat and
early failure, and most 486DX chips require cooling devices of
their own for reliable operation.
80486DX2,3 or 4 : A 486 CPU chip with supposedly a more durable
construction to allow its processing speed to be tied to a system
clock running at double or triple its normal rated speed.
(DX4-100 chips are not DX-25 chips quadrupled in speed, but
rather are DX-33 chips tripled in speed).
80486SX : A chip that was never supposed to exist. Operated at
speeds of 25Mz to 50MHz. Originally created by clone
manufacturers (not Intel), this is a 486 chip without the math
coprocessing circuitry. Intel responded by offering their own
486SX chips which were essentially 486DX chips whose math
coprocessors had been short-circuited at the factory. Made 486
computers at 386 prices a reality.
80487DX : The chip that never existed, and a very ugly tale.
(See crippleware for details)
80486DLC, 80486SLC, 80486DRX2 etc. : 80486 clone chips
manufactured by Texas Instruments , Cyrix, AMD and others.
Various performance and compatibility specifications. "LC"
usually stands for "low consumption" (of power) and while these
chips were designed for laptop and notebook computers, many found
their way into home computers as well.
80586, 80686 : Not acknowledged by Intel to be true model numbers
for this series of chip, since Intel failed to trademark the
numbers. Used by some clone chip manufacturers and sellers to
describe their Pentium-level CPUs. See P-5, P-6, Pentium,
Pentium Pro.
P-5 (Pentium) : Original name for the Pentium microprocessor,
successor to the 80486. In addition to the 486's features
Pentium offered speeds ranging from 60MHz to 133MHz, a 64-bit
memory data bus and a larger internal cache (16K) than the 486.
The first production runs of 60MHz chips were the ones with the
famous math flaws; no other speed of Pentium chip was affected.
Early models of Pentiums were also known for excessive heat and
early failure. Among its other performance-enhancing features
are branch prediction, which tries to guess program instructions
and pre-execute them to save time (just in case the prediction is
right), and superscalar construction with the equivalent of over
three million transistors.
P-6 (Pentium Pro) : Just released at this writing as the Pentium
Pro , supposed to be the successor to the Pentium but provides an
improvement in performance more in line with a hopped-up Pentium
than a new generation of microprocessor.
P-24 : Pentium Overdrive chip designed to operate on 32-bit bus
motherboards (specifically upgradeable 486 motherboards ) to
improve performance. Supposed to be direct plug-in replacements
for the 486 but do not provide nearly the improvement in
performance of a Pentium chip on a Pentium-oriented 64-bit
motherboard.
adapter
Two primary meanings in regard to computing; an additional
meaning applies to personal computers.
Adapter usually refers to hardware used by a peripheral device to
"adapt" it to the system on which it is installed. Adapter card
is used interchangeably with peripheral card to refer to circuit
boards installed in computers to connect peripheral devices.
Devices used to convert one type of connection to another type
are also referred to as adapters. For example, adapters exist to
convert the standard IBM-compatible keyboard plug type to a
smaller plug type for use with a notebook computer, or for
converting nine-pin serial port plugs and sockets to 23-pin and
vice versa.
Adapter can also refer to a power supply adapter transformer used
for hardware attached to a computer. Many speaker systems used
by home PCs require "power packs" or "adapters" (sometimes called
wall pack adapters by manufacturers) to supply power in place of
batteries.
Adobe Type Manager (ATM)
This is a software product developed by Adobe for IBM-compatible,
UNIX and Macintosh computers that permits a type of scalable font
that conforms to the Adobe Postscript Type 1 specification to be
used on that system by one or all programs capable of using
scalable fonts. Next to TrueType, it is the most common scalable
font format in use today, but lags far behind TrueType's
popularity thanks to TrueType being the Windows standard.
algorithm
A predetermined set of instructions for solving mathematical
problem in a given number of steps. Algorithms function by
applying a step-by-step procedure that insures a specific outcome
or solution a specific problem. An essential aspect of computer
programming.
Amiga
The successor to the Commodore C-64, the Amiga was Commodore's
flagship computer until they concentrated on becoming primarily
IBM clone manufacturers early in the 1990s. The Amiga was based
on Motorola's 68000-series chip and offered a graphical user
interface as well as command-line operation (AmigaDOS), making it
more versatile in that respect than the Macintosh or Atari ST,
but never a serious contender to Mac's supremacy in the
68000-based PC class. It was a superb graphics and game computer
with capabilities which were never fully exploited in the
marketplace and suffered unfortunate operating system bugs. It
was the first popular PC brand capable of multitasking.
The Amiga still maintains a loyal following of users. It is
primarily used today in commercial video production.
analog
In computing terms, any thing or event which is not expressible
in terms of integers, i.e. 0's and 1's, or fixed states, i.e.
on/off.annotation
Annotations are usually personal notes or comments attached to a
Windows helpfile. For example, a note could be added to this
helpfile by clicking Edit and selecting Annotate. Windows
displays a Notepad-like text box where you can type and save your
notes. The next time you view the helpfile, that note is visible
in the helpfile as a paper clip you can click to view the
annotation. Create a test annotation now to see how this works.
Apple Computers
Sunnyvale, California-based Apple Computers are best known today
as manufacturers of the Apple Macintosh PC, a graphically-based,
integrated PC with a proprietary operating system. For more than
a decade it has been considered "the" alternative to
IBM-compatible/Microsoft PC computing.
Trivia:
Apple began as the American dream: two young whiz-kid hackers
named Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak who essentially built the
first Apple computers in a basement. The Apple ][ went on to
become the first popular home computer and a market leader until
the introduction of Commodore's C-64, thanks to the low price and
high performance of these computers, which came standard with an
unheard-of 32K of memory.
application
A program that performs a function directly for a user. FTP,
mail and TELNET clients are examples of network applications.
Spreadsheets, word processors and games are examples of personal
applications.
archive bit
One of the bits in a file's attribute byte; used mainly to store
a file's backup status; i.e. the bit is set to 1 if the file has
been backed up and to 0 if the file has not been backed up. DOS
and Windows automatically restore a file's archive bit to the NOT
SET state (meaning not backed up) when changes are made to it
unless specifically instructed not to do so.
Atari (extended topic)
A California computer manufacturer (yes, a computer manufacturer)
taken over in the early 1980s by the Tramiel family who had been
at the helm of Commodore during the heyday of the Commodore C-64
and for a time during the development of the Amiga.
The company was, and still is, known primarily as manufacturers
of computer games, such as the arcade machines Centipede, Battle
Zone and Missile Command, and the home game machine Atari 2600
which was the first popular cartridge-based game console.
Atari is better known in Europe as manufacturers of the Atari ST,
STe and TT lines of personal computers, which were top-ranked
products behind the IBM-compatible and ahead of Macintosh in
Europe for many years. Many people felt the ST/STe/TT line could
have been the great hope for inexpensive, high-performance
GUI-based home computing, but it was not to be.
These elegant, compact machines featured an implementation of
DRI's GEM interface, an enormous range of high quality software
(particularly considering the size of the user base), built-in
MIDI and digital sound capabilities as early as 1985 when the
first STs were released, and the lowest retail prices of any
comparably-powered PCs until the release of the TT line.
Some believe price was the eventual undoing of Atari,
particularly in North America. Many developers claimed Atari
users were less willing to pay for quality software than users on
other platforms, although this point is a matter of much dispute.
According to insiders, Atari instead fell victim to top-level
management mistakes, and the ST/STe/TT line died a quiet death in
the early 1990s. Today Atari is best known as manufacturer of
the 64-bit Jaguar game system, a fact lamented by many ex-users
including this writer. [ - Cub Lea]
attribute
Generally speaking, a particular characteristic of a file or
piece of data. Used most common to describe the state of a disk
file. DOS and Windows use byte 11 of the file's directory entry
and store a file's alterability (read/write), hidden or visible,
system status and archive bit.
AutoCAD, Autodesk Inc.
AutoCAD, produced by Autodesk Inc., is considered industrywide to
be the standard for vector graphic design, and has a price to
match its reputation (basic AutoCAD packages for professional use
have always run in the thousands of dollars).
Used for everything from high-end drafting and design to
engineering, animation, simulations and both still and
three-dimensional graphic arts, it is an extremely versatile and
exceptionally well-supported product which appears likely to
remain the industry standard through the end of the century.
AUTOEXEC.BAT
A file used on DOS-based personal computer operating systems to
configure system and software settings and parameters at boot-up.
CONFIG.SYS, operating system, disk operating system (DOS)
backup
Strictly speaking, backup refers to an archived copy of a file or
set of files, regardless of where this archive is stored.
Practically, backup also refers to the process of creating
archived copies of data, and is used as one word, "backup",
rather than two, as in "When are you going to backup that hard
disk?"
The high vulnerability of magnetic and optical media to damage
makes regular backups a critical part of routine file management
for all computer users, since the data created on a computer is
usually much more valuable and difficult to replace than the
programs used to create that data.
Ideally, all important data should be backed up twice, and one
copy of the backup stored a safe distance from the location of
the computer to protect against loss of backup media in the event
of theft or damage to the computer.Basic Input Output System (BIOS)
The software and hardware which govern a PC's data input-output
functions. These are usually controlled by specific chips in the
computer which store semi-permanent information about the
system's configuration. Many BIOS functions are also managed by
software in more advanced operating systems capable of taking
over these duties. Pertains to all data coming into and going
out of the CPU, including data from disks, RAM, video, audio and
any other forms.
batch
A collection of commands. Batch is also known as the rudimentary
programming language on a command line operating system in which
groups of typed commands can be combined into a text file. This
text file, when executed as if it were a program, executes the
commands on the list in the order presented.
battery (CMOS battery)
On a PC, refers to a small cylindrical or disk-shaped battery
usually located at the back of the motherboard or connected to
the motherboard by a short cable. This battery is used to
preserve time, date and hardware configuration while the computer
is powered down. Believed by many industry watchers to be one of
the dumbest design components of the IBM-compatible, since memory
chips to hold this information can be created which do not
require battery back-up to store their information.
Borland
American software giant responsible for a number of extremely
popular programs, among them the Quattro Pro spreadsheet, Paradox
database, and the most popular C and Pascal programming packages
in use for Windows and DOS.
bug
Unwanted or unexpected response from a piece of hardware or
software. Stems from an incident with an early Mark I computer
at Harvard University in the 1940's. U.S. Navy officer Grace
Murray Hopper found the remains of a moth blocking an electrical
switch and disrupting the operations of the computer. Since
then, the process of filtering out unwanted program responses has
been known as "debugging".
bundle
A computer marketing term that refers either to a package of
separate products offered as part of a larger package or the act
of creating such a package. Bundling is standard practice in the
industry as a competitive measure, and even operating systems now
come as software bundles. For example, Windows 3.1 came not just
as an operating system, but bundled with a paint program, a word
processor and a card game. In turn, computer retailers bundle
Window 3.1 or Windows 95 with their computers when they are sold
to the public.
byte
Bits organized together into a "word" to hold a symbol
letter/number. On most PC's, Eight zero's or one's; eight "bits"
of information (not to be confused with "nibble". (Byte is a
flexible term; some computers use byte sizes as high as 36 bits.)
A byte is eight bits, or a combination of eight on-off switches.
It sounds pretty meaningless until you see bytes as similar to
LED letters and numbers. Think of each segment is a bit, and the
combination of these segments, on or off, make up all the letters
and numbers in your computer's alphabet.
Software cache (extended topic)
There are two main types of caches in use on most modern PCs:
hardware caches and software caches. (Hardware caches are
covered in the internal and external cache topic.)
A software cache reserves a block of memory reserved for use
outside the normal function of the operating system. Caching is
used primarily as a method of dedicating areas of memory to
specific functions as a means of speeding up the operation of the
whole system or specific parts of it. Caches usually operate
transparently, meaning that the operator never notices them in
use except insofar as they improve or degrade system performance.
In most cases, a cache is an intermediate temporary storage dump
for data destined for a specific output device.
Print caches store data destined for the printer and feed that
data to the printer port during times when the system is not
otherwise in use, a handy feature with operating systems such as
Windows 3.1 that dedicate the whole system to input/output when
jobs such as printing and disk writes have been requested. Disk
caches store data destined for the hard disk or floppy disk and
wait for free system time just like print caches, allowing the
operator to return to work without waiting for the system to
write data.
Read-ahead caching is often used on hard disks to accelerate
their performance as well. Blocks of data from the CD are read
into memory or written to the hard disk where they can be
accessed much more quickly when needed.
Caches are not always beneficial to the system; the amount of
improvement or degradation of performance they provide depends on
how they are used and the amount of memory available on the
system for other tasks.
carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS)
A painful nerve disorder suffered by people who work with
computers. CTS gets its name from the narrow tunnel in the wrist
connecting ligament and bone. The median nerve, which carries
impulses from the brain to the hand, and the tendons that open
and close the hand are found in the carpal tunnel. When undue
pressure is put on the tendons, they can swell and compress the
median nerve, causing numbness, weakness, tingling, and burning
in the fingers and hands. Usually caused by poor keyboard
posture, lack of support for hands and wrists, and believed to be
made worse by deficiencies of specific nutrients, most notably
Vitamin B-6. Once a true positive diagnosis is made, there is no
known long-term solution other than surgery to the affected
ligament to relieve the pressure and remove tissue.
As early as 1992, the US National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health was claiming that thousands of Americans were
already afflicted. It was only in 1994 that the term became
widely known. Some experts believe that CTS is severely
overdiagnosed, and that most of those who have been diagnosed
with CTS actually have a less severe and reversible, but no less
uncomfortable, disorder known as tendosynovitis.cathode ray tube (CRT)
The display tube used for computer generated graphics and/or
text; also used in televisions. So named because the device is a
vacuum tube with one or three electron "guns" that fire cathode
"rays" at the phosphorescent coating inside the front of the
tube.
CBM
Commodore Business Machines
central processing unit (CPU)
The heart any computer, comprising arithmetic, control, and logic
elements. In Macintosh's the CPU is usually a Motorola
68000-series (e.g. a 68040); in IBM-compatibles there are several
possible brands, usually referred to as xxx86 chips (e.g. AMD
80486-DX 80MHz, Intel 80486-SX 25MHz, Cyrix 80486-DC 33MHz, etc.)
chip
A computer chip is actually only a small fragment of what most
people think of as a chip. The chip itself is a small wafer of
silicon fractions of an inch in size housed in plastic or ceramic
material and surrounded by a grid of wires or connector pins that
allow it to interact with other components.
chipset
Two or more large-scale integrated circuits used to perform a set
of functions in a PC which must be present together in order to
work. Usually refers to the chips on a motherboard used by the
hardware for memory and bus management.
CHKDSK.EXE
A DOS program used for cleaning up hard disk errors, essential
for most Windows 3.1 users. DOS file management requires opened
files to be closed by the operating system when a program ends so
that their beginning and endpoints can be recorded in the file
allocation table (FAT). Unfortunately, when the system is turned
off without closing all programs or after a fatal crash of
Windows, these files are usually not closed properly. When this
occurs, stray data is left on the disk which could interfere with
the integrity of other files or, at the very least, take up
unwanted space. CHKDSK.EXE is the program designed to correct
such problems as well as several other errors in file and
directory structure.
CHKDSK.EXE does not detect or correct errors in the magnetic
media of a disk itself. In DOS 6.0 and higher this job is
reserved for Scandisk, which also includes CHKDSK.EXE 's
features.
clone
The term originated in genetics to indicate an exact genetic copy
of a specific organism, but it has since passed into common usage
as slang for identical copy . In computing it has specific
meaning. When discussing hardware, it means hardware that
precisely mimics the capabilities of a specific make and model of
hardware which has become a standard but (usually) without
violating copyright or patent laws.
The most common use for clone in computing is when referring to
an entire computer. Originally the common term was IBM clone ,
meant to indicate that the computer was 100 percent compatible
with IBM's specifications for that particular type of computer.
Clone can also refer to software that mimics a common piece of
more expensive or better-known software, although the term is
usually reserved for software which mimics all of the original
program's features.
cluster
A group of sectors on a hard disk or floppy disk. Floppy disk
clusters are usually two sectors (one on each side of the disk)
but because hard disks can include several actual disks or
platters, the cluster size of a hard disk is usually the size of
a sector times the number of platters times two. Newer, more
sophisticated hard disk formatting techniques now allow most hard
disks to have two-sector clusters regardless of the number of
platters.
cold boot
To start, or boot, a computer from a power-off state; physically
"cold". This is usually the last resort when restarting a
computer, as most functions can be reset using a warm boot in
less time and with less potential loss of data.Commodore C-64
Until the IBM-compatible came into its own as an affordable home
computer, Commodore's C-64 series of personal computers were the
most popular personal computers in history, and until very
recently were the single biggest-selling make and model of
computer ever, despite being out of manufacture for nearly a
decade.
The C-64 featured a then-enormous 64K of memory, and Commodore's
massive marketing effort insured an enormous amount of support
from software and hardware developers. As its popularity grew it
gained a graphically-based operating shell called GEOS which is
still implemented in some PC software, mouse and modem support,
superb game play for products of this era, and literally tens of
thousands of programs were available for it. Considered by some
to be the first true family PC, it fell out of market favor with
the release of the Macintosh, Atari ST and Commodore's own Amiga
line and reductions in the relative cost of IBM-compatibles in
the mid-1980s.
compact disk read-only memory (CD-ROM)
Optical disk used as data storage medium. High storage
(600Mb-plus per CD is possible now; several gigabytes will be
common in a few years), short shelf life (the recorded surface
begins to decay within a year or two).
complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS)
Type of electronic circuitry. This circuitry is used in
IBM-compatible computers for storage of critical information
about the system's configuration.
Computer Graphics Adapter (CGA)
Describes both the type of circuit board or video card needed for
CGA compatibility, and the type of software emulation needed to
view it. Few colors, low resolution, obsolete.
CONFIG.SYS
A file used on DOS-compatible personal computers to to configure
system and software settings and parameters at boot-up, mainly
concerning hardware/software interfacing.
Control Program for Microcomputers (CP/M)
An early microcomputer operating system written by hacker Gary
Kildall for 8080- and Z80-based machines, very popular in the
late 1970s but virtually wiped out by MS-DOS after the release of
the IBM PC in 1981. Legend has it that Kildall's company blew
its chance to write the OS for the IBM PC because Kildall decided
to spend a day IBM's reps wanted to meet with him enjoying the
perfect flying weather in his private plane. Many of CP/M's
features and conventions strongly resemble those of early DEC
operating systems such as TOPS-10, OS/8, RSTS, and RSX-11.
[Source: The Jargon File 3.0.0]
copy protection
A method of encoding data so that it cannot be duplicated as a
method of preventing unauthorized use of the software.
Considered by most experienced users as a troublesome and often
stupid method of maximizing revenues to software producers, as
the vast majority of users of unlicensed software would not or
could not pay for the software whether it was protected or not.
crash, crash recovery
A sudden, usually drastic failure of a program, operating system
or piece of computer hardware.
Crash recovery refers either to the act of recovering from a
crash or the facilities of a particular piece of software or
hardware for dealing with a crash. For example, Windows 95
offers enhanced crash recovery over Windows 3.1 because it often
allows the user to save data in their program before closing a
program which has crashed an area of memory.
Creative Labs Inc., Sound Blaster
Manufactured by Creative Labs, the Sound Blaster set the standard
for digital sound on the IBM-compatible, and despite its
Yamaha-licensed FM synthesis being almost a decate behind modern
synthesis methods, it continues to be the standard which other
manufacturers must meet when developing for the IBM-compatible.
Sound Blaster peripheral cards provide the ability to use CD-ROM
drives as players for music CDs, recording and playback of
digitized sound samples, internal (and, on some models, external)
MIDI music compatibility and a built-in synthesizer capable of
FM-type synthesis.crippleware
Software or hardware that has some important functionality
deliberately removed, so as to entice potential users to pay for
a working version, or which has been deliberately crippled, and
can be upgraded to a more expensive model by a trivial change
(e.g., cutting a jumper or connecting a cable).
Crippleware usually refers to fully-functional software
distributed freely which cannot have all of its features
activated until the user pays for a license and receives a serial
number designed to activate the crippled features. Loosely
speaking, PC/Internet Lexicon could be termed crippleware.
An excellent example of crippleware is Intel's 486SX chip, which
is a standard 486DX chip with the co-processor dyked out (in some
early versions it was present but disabled). To upgrade, you buy
a complete 486DX chip with working co-processor (its identity
thinly veiled by a different pinout) and plug it into the board's
expansion socket. It then disables the SX, which becomes a fancy
power sink. Don't you love Intel? [Source: The Jargon File
3.0.0]
cursor
Strictly speaking, it's the horizontal or vertical line (or, in
some DOS and Windows programs, the vertical block) that indicates
the current "focus" or active location of the screen where text
may be entered, commands may be given or menu items typed in.
The mouse arrow is also considered to be a cursor.
cylinder
A cylinder is a "ring" of data on a hard disk. Hard disks can
have hundreds of tracks, which are magnetic regions similar to
the rings seen in the cross-section of a tree trunk. Hard disks
may use several stacked metal platters, not just a single disk,
and a cylinder refers to all tracks in the same location on all
platters in the hard disk.
database
A structured collection of information, usually on a related
subject, maintained as a unified whole which may be accessed in a
variety of ways by the user.
debug
The act of tracing and correcting errors or unwanted output in a
process or program.
Also: DEBUG.EXE , a DOS program designed for accessing the
operating system, programs and hardware directly from the command
line for purposes of alteration and investigation. Specialized
programs designed for this purpose are also referred to as
debuggers.
defragment
Over time, files which are changed or added to, or data which is
added to the system, becomes fragmented, meaning that files may
be split into sections spread over several areas of a hard disk.
Accessing a fragmented file takes longer than accessing a
contiguous file, or one which is laid out end to end on only one
area of the hard disk. Defragmentation is the process of
reorganizing a disk (almost always a hard disk) so that all files
are contiguous. Defragmentation also usually involves reordering
directory data so that it sits at the front of the disk where it
can be accessed more quickly and with less stress on drive
mechanisms, and can also involve moving all files to the front of
the disk where they can be accessed with less drive head
movement.
Defragmentation is routine maintenance for home and business PCs
which should be done at least three times annually to insure that
the system runs at peak performance. Defragmentation can also
prolong the useful life of some hard disks by reducing the
workload on the drive head mechanisms.
desktop
In a graphical operating environment (GUI) such as Windows or
OS/2, the combination of elements that make up the visible
display, including windows, icons, background graphics, and any
custom features added to the display by the user, are referred to
as the desktop. Virtual desktops are also possible with GUI's,
and these permit work areas or display areas which extend off the
sides of the visible screen to be included in the activities
performed by the system.
desktop publishing (DTP)
A generic term used to refer to any kind of word processing or
document formatting work designed for publication which can be
done practically on a desktop. Typing a newsletter on a manual
typewriter for a local club is DTP, as is developing a popular
international publication for consumer use on a high-end PC or
workstation.
device driver
These are programs (DOS or Windows) which enable a specific piece
of hardware to communicate with the operating system. Without a
device driver installed and running in active memory, the
software cannot communicate with the hardware device. Many
standard device drivers are included directly with the operating
system on older operating systems such as DOS and Windows 3.1;
Windows 95 has its own unique device drivers for virtually every
part of the hardware including the floppy disks.digital
Any thing or event which is expressible in terms of integers or
fixed states; i.e. 0's and 1's, on/off.
disk operating system (DOS)
Refers to any such system, not necessarily the IBM-compatible
DOS', although it is generally used to indicate IBM, Novell or
Microsoft's general-purpose, low function, disk memory oriented
operating system. Has come to be synonymous with MS-DOS, or
Microsoft DOS, the product that built the Redmond, Washington
software giant into the world's largest software publisher.
DMF
Data Manager Function : IBM PACS disk/storage resident data
structures and organizations
Also: Distribution Media Format : a floppy disk format that
allows 1.44Mb 3.5" disks to be filled with 1.68Mb of data for
purposes of more efficient distribution. The floppy disk version
of Windows 95 uses the DMF format.
Doom, Wolfenstein
Two breakthrough games from shareware games producers ID Software
(formerly associated with Apogee) which used revolutionary 3-D
virtual perspectives and unparalleled violence and gore for a
widely available computer game. Castle Wolfenstein, known to
most simply as Wolfenstein, set the standard which Doom surpassed
and reset, and turned ID into the single most successful
shareware publishing house in history. Probably the two most
popular video games released since Pacman and Donkey Kong, and
perhaps the most popular ever. Both have been cited on numerous
occasions as factors in firings, divorce suits, negligence
actions and software censorship and content labelling
discussions.
dot matrix printer
The most common type of personal computer printer until about
1994. Dot matrix printers are characterized by a print head made
up of usually nine or 24 pins laid out in a matrix. The pressure
of some or all of these pins on a typewriter-style film ribbon
makes the impression on the paper and produces the printout. Dot
matrix printers are notorious for being slower and much noisier
than inkjet and laser printers but have the benefits of high
reliability, low cost, the ability to print multi-part forms, and
ease of maintenance. It is not uncommon for dot matrix printers
to be used daily for five years or longer in a clean environment
and require nothing except the occasional ribbon change.
Dot matrix printers are a type of device known as an impact
printer because the pins must impact the ribbon onto the paper to
produce a visible result. They differ in functionality from
daisy wheel printers, which create much crisper text, in their
ability to print graphics.
dot pitch
The amount of space between the dots, or small windows, of
phosphor at the front of a picture tube. A .28mm dot pitch means
that there are .28 millimetres of unused space between each dot
on the screen.
double-density, high density, DS/DD, DS/HD, SS/DD
The three surviving floppy drive density identifications common
to IBM-compatible computers, soon to become two since
single-sided double-density (SS/DD) is almost never used now that
double-sided drives can be purchased used for as little as $5.00.
The density refers to the amount of data that can be packed onto
the surface of the disk. Floppy disks originally started out as
single-sided, single-density disks since the recording media and
heads had a tendency to "bleed" onto nearby tracks and could not
reliably write on both sides of a disk. Eight-inch floppies
originally allowed only forty tracks of data; modern 3.5"
floppies allow up to 82 tracks on both sides of the disk thanks
to improvements in the precision of disk drives, reduced costs
for two-head floppy drives and improvements in the magnetic media
used in manufacturing the disks.
DS/HD stands for high density, which allows up to twenty sectors
per track over the usual nine or ten on a 3.5" floppy.
The same acronyms are used to describe format and density for
5.25" disks as well, but the storage capacities differ on these
disks.
DR-DOS
Digital Research Inc.'s DOS operating system; had some popularity
in the late 1980s but never gained popularity. Later purchased
by Novell and now sold with considerable changes and enhancements
as Novell DOS. Infamous for incompatibility problems.
dual inline package, DIP switch
In everyday usage, DIPs are usually thought of collections of
several tiny on/off switches mounted on a frame that looks like a
computer chip housing. They are usually designed to be set once
to match a device to its host hardware.
Strictly speaking, DIP actually refers to any integrated circuit
with two sets of connectors on either side of the chip housing,
whether there are four pins or a hundred and four. Old-style RAM
chips are DIPs. The earliest IBM-compatible CPU's, the 8088 and
8086 chips, also came packaged as DIP ICs. DIPs are the common
centipede-like components most people associate with computer
chips.emulator, emulation
Emulator is used to refer to any software or hardware which is
designed to mimic the function of other hardware or software,
particularly when the emulation is of the "they said it couldn't
be done" variety. Emulator usually refers to a program or
peripheral card which expands the capabilities of a computer to
encompass other computers or operating systems. Examples of
emulators are Mac-in-DOS, a card which allows a Macintosh to
perform as if it is a 486DX series IBM-compatible; and Executor,
a PC program that allows IBM-compatibles to run Mac software.
Emulators based on software generally do not run at top speed;
emulators based on hardware tend to run faster than the devices
they are emulating.
Emulation is usually used to refer to the act of mimicking any
hardware or software function regardless of the difficulty. For
example, all 386 and higher PCs are easily capable of using
onboard memory as expanded memory, but because a separate memory
card is not being used, expanded memory created with software
memory managers is referred to as expanded memory emulation .
Emulator is not to be confused with the EMUlator, a digital
musical sampling instrument used in music and film production.
end user
The person you see when you look in the mirror. Many industry
watchers are upset by the use of the term "user" to describe a
computer owner. According to some, it connotes aspects of drug
use, and represents a tendency within the industry to treat the
consumer as an addict in need of a fix or a better high.
Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA)
The IBM enhanced PC graphics adapter card was the standard for
several years in the mid to late 1980s. It allowed 256 colors at
low resolutions, 16 colors at high resolutions. Obsolete. EGA's
top end is identical to the Microsoft Windows standard VGA
display resolution of 16 colors at 640x480 pixels.
Hacker slang: "Enhanced Graphics Ain't ", signifying the
disappointment that EGA lagged far behind comparable display
resolutions available on other PC platforms. In spite of the
complaints, it was EGA that first gave the IBM-compatible a
serious shot at being a true home entertainment center, not just
a workhorse.
ergonomics
Strictly speaking, ergonomics is the study of biotechnology.
Practically, ergonomics relates to anything concerning the
combination of safety, comfort and productivity of a person in a
particular environment. Ergonomics as it concerns computers has
lately become equated with the effort to stem the rising
incidence of repetitive strain injury and other afflictions
associated with long-term intensive use of a computer through the
use of exercise, posture, furnishings and workplace layout.
Expanded memory (EMS)
Expanded memory is memory which resides outside of conventional
memory but can be mapped into one or more conventional memory
areas, using a 64K page "frame" located between the 640K DOS
limit and the 1Mb "conventional" limit. This frame moves 32K
(but more commonly 16K) blocks of memory in and out of
conventional memory for use by the program, essentially
"cheating" the system.
Greater flexibility for slow PCs
Expanded memory was designed to allow older 8088 and 8086 PCs to
make use of more than one megabyte of memory. Extended memory
was introduced as a new standard with the 80286 CPU, but EMS
stuck around due to its popularity and is still used by many
programs, most notably Lotus 1-2-3 for DOS.
The Expanded Memory Specification
The EMS stands for Expanded Memory Specification. This
specification was first set down by a consortium consisting of
Lotus, Intel and Microsoft and is still referred to as the
LIM-EMS specification. Early versions used 16K and 32K page
frames; the 4.0 spec still in use allows a 64K page frame.
The Enhanced Expanded Memory Specification (EEMS) was refined by
Ashton-Tate, AST and Quadram to allow more access to memory than
the original specification, which was limited to 32Mb.
Expanded versus extended memory
EMS memory offers the option of configuring some or all of the
available memory as additional memory for programs that can make
use of it; extended memory uses all available system memory but
is also considerably faster than expanded memory.
expanded memory manager, Lotus/Intel/Microsoft (LIM), extended
memory (XMS), page, conventional memory
Extended Graphics Array (XGA)
Video standard developed by IBM as the successor to VGA. One of
many graphics standards introduced by IBM which didn't quite make
it.
extension
Refers to the final characters in a filename after the period.
DOS and Windows prior to Windows 95 were limited to filenames of
up to eleven characters, up to eight of which appeared before the
period and up to three of which appeared after. The characters
after the period, or dot, are referred to as the extension and
are usually used to indicate what the file is used for.
For example, plain text files without special formatting usually
have .TXT extensions. Programs have .EXE extensions, and in DOS
can also have .COM extensions. File extensions are used as an
organizational tool, and in Windows to help the operating systems
automatically load certain types of files into their related
programs.
Windows 95 no longer limits files to eleven characters but still
makes use of three-character file extensions for auto-loading
documents.
extract
Although it can have a number of fairly obvious meanings, it most
often refers to the process of uncompressing files contained
within a compressed archive file, such as an individual file in a
backup tape or disk set, or uncompressing files in a compressed
archive file obtained from a BBS, online service or Internet
site.
extremely low frequency electromagnetic radiation (ELF)
Electrical lines pulsing at 45 or 60 cycles per second are an
example of ELF radiation. also the Earth has its own pulse of
about six cycles per second. Used in context of measuring
radiation and interference in electrical circuits, particularly
computer monitors and power lines; also in ergonomics and
workplace safety.
Although there has been considerable debate over whether ELF
radiation poses any threat to public health and safety, the World
Health Organization has been quite clear about their position on
the matter:
"Exposure to ELF (extremely low frequency) electric fields
can alter cellular physiological and behavioral events...At
present, studies serve as a warning that unnecessary exposure to
electric fields should be avoided.
"It is recommended that efforts be made to limit exposure,
particularly for members of the general population, to levels as
low as can be reasonably achieved."
- Environmental Health Criteria: 35, Extremely Low Frequency
(ELF) Fields, World Health Organization, Geneva, 1984, pp. 18 and
88. -facsimile (FAX)
An ancient form of communication in computing terms, traceable to
1842 when Scottish inventor Alexander Bain developed a machine
for transmitting simple images over short-distance telephone
connections. Facsimile transmission is, as it might seem,
transmission of a facsimile of the original document over a phone
line or other networked data connection.
Most modern FAX transfer is done with stand-alone FAX units which
are essentially baby photocopiers. They include scanners for
creating digital images of the documents to be transmitted and
printing facilities for creating hard copies of the documents
received.
This trend is expected to be reversed by the end of 1996 as
virtually all new modems come equipped with facilities for
sending and receiving FAX and more and more document processing
is being done on computers rather than by hand or with
typewriters.
file
A contiguous block of data with a beginning and and end that is
stored on a disk as a single unit and has an assigned name.
flicker
Caused by a low refresh rate or interlaced screen display, this
describes the flashing effect created by inexpensive monitors set
to higher color resolutions than the monitor or video card is
designed to handle. A stressor to be avoided.
font
More commonly known to most people as a synonym for typeface,
which is not strictly true. Fonts differ from typefaces in that
they are only single sets of characters. A font is a graphical
representation of a character set such as the numbers 0-9 or the
alphabet. There are now literally tens of thousands of graphical
variations on the standard typewriter-style and newspaper-style
fonts which were virtually ubiquitous for decades, and these can
be applied to virtually any document on almost all
graphically-based operating systems.
front end
The hardware or software that acts as a non-processing interface
to hardware or software which actually does the processing. A
banking terminal is an example of a hardware front end. When
Windows is used to copy DOS disks, Windows acts as the front end
for DOS.
glitch
>From the German "glitschen", to slip, via the Yiddish "glitshen",
to slide or skid. A sudden interruption in electric service,
sanity, continuity, or program function. Sometimes recoverable.
[Source: The Jargon File 3.0.0]
hack
Two primary meanings in computerdom: to create a quick and dirty
solution to a problem (i.e. to "hack together" a program that
does a specific task) or the act of studying, experimenting with,
or otherwise learning about a particular piece of software or
hardware (e.g. " I'll stick with my word processor; I don't have
the time to hack spreadsheets.)
Capitalized, Hack refers to a dungeons'n'dragons game from the
late 1970s that became popular on all platforms and as a
network-playable adventure.
hard disk
Hard disks are the primary long-term high-speed storage devices
used on PCs. They are designed to store anywhere from several
dozen to several thousand times the contents of a floppy disk and
provide access to data at several times the rate of reading from
floppies or CDs. Hard disks are usually hard metal platters in
hermetically sealed cases. They use sensitive read/write heads
similar to the heads on a cassette deck which ride a millionth of
an inch above the surface of the platter, which is why early hard
disks were so sensitive to movement. A single hard disk can
contain several platters, and most PCs have only one hard disk.
All modern PCs can support a minimum of two hard disks, four with
special software.
Archaic: hard drive
heat sink
A hardware component used to cool other hardware components which
are adversely affected by heat. A heat sink literally drains
away excess heat energy by absorbing it and dissipating it into
the surrounding atmosphere. Heat sinks are traditionally made of
conductive materials such as aluminum or cast iron, and usually
have ribs to assist in dissipating heat. Heat sinks are most
often found on computers attached to CPU chips or power
conversion devices in the power supply's housing.Hewlett Packard (HP)
Manufacturer of a wide range of computer equipment; best known
for their laser printer products; also refers to the ability of
certain printers to behave in the same fashion as (emulate) HP
printers.
HGC/HGA
Hercules Graphics Card or Hercules Graphics Adapter: For many
years early in IBM-compatible development considered high-end
graphics. Allowed early PC's with monochrome monitors to display
graphics other than text characters and emulate CGA graphics in
monochrome (with the addition of third-party software). Hercules
still manufactures high-end graphics hardware but has little
consumer presence in recent years.
home page
Strictly speaking the top level, root or index page of a World
Wide Web site, generally the page with the shortest URL, as in
"You can find the strawberry jam recipe at
http://chef.com/food/jams.html , but I recommend you browse the
home page first at http://chef.com to get an idea of everything
they have on the site". Home pages usually have the file name
index.html .
hotspot
A "clickable" area of text or graphics. Hotspot refers to an
area of text, or part or all of an image, which, when selected by
an input device such as a mouse, allows the user to move to
another part of a document or program. The highlighted "" words
in this help tool are hotspots. So are the abbreviations and
terms used in the main screen of the lexicon.
hue, shade, tone
Hue refers to the position of a color in the visible spectrum of
light, as opposed to shades and tones of color which are
variations in the intensity of a given color. Yellow and red are
hues, whereas pink and crimson are shades of red. Shade refers
to the amount of black in a given color; tone refers to the
amount of white light or reflected white light.
Hypertext Transport Protocol (HTTP)
The specification for connecting World-Wide Web resources to each
other and to users via the Internet.
IBM (extended topic)
IBM is an acronym for International Business Machines , the most
venerable name in computing and the driving force behind the
development of personal computing in the late 1970s and early
1980s. They also manufacture larger computer systems for
business and institutional use and publish software, including
their own brand of DOS, OS/2 (a competitive operating system with
Windows), and more specialized applications for business and
institutional markets.
It is IBM who are responsible for the IBM-compatible
specification being the standard used by more than 80 percent of
all computers in existence today. When they first released the
IBM PC, they chose to make the specifications for this computer
available - and usable without royalty - to all interested
parties, a move that surprised and pleased industry-watchers. It
was partly a way of opening the door for other manufacturers to
build hardware which could be added to the PC, but many
manufacturers chose to build their own hardware. IBM stuck to
their guns and did the same with the release of the XT and
AT-class computers, and the industry followed suit. Apple, on
the other hand, chose to keep the specification for the Macintosh
to themselves and in a very short time the low cost of IBM
"clone" computers insured that the IBM-compatible/DOS computer
would be the personal computing standard for at least a decade.
IBM survived partly on the strength of its name but more on the
quality of their product, which was usually higher than most
competitors'. That reputation sagged with the release of several
less than ideal products (e.g. IBM PC/jr and PS/2) and the
adherence to software and hardware standards the rest of the
industry chose not to follow (e.g. OS/2 and MicroChannel
Architecture). Today IBM is less dependent for revenues on
consumer-level products than for their industrial and
institutional products, although that has changed somewhat with
their 1995 acquisition of Lotus.
IBM PC/XT, IBM PC/AT, IBM-compatible, clone, Apple, Macintosh,
MicroChannel Architecture, Lotus
IBM-compatible
One of the most over-used and under-comprehended terms in
computing. Strictly speaking, IBM-compatible means compatible
with the specifications laid down by IBM for a specific model of
computer, usually the IBM PC-AT series specification upon which
DOS and Windows PCs are based.
Unfortunately, when it comes to hardware in particular,
compatibility with IBM specifications does not necessarily mean
the hardware will be compatible with other hardware which also
claims to be IBM-compatible. The specification does not allow
for the possibility that separate pieces of hardware compatible
with the AT will not be compatible with each other.
IBM-compatible is also used to refer to software designed to run
on an AT-class machine or better, but what it usually means in
this context is that it will run on a machine capable of running
MS-DOS (usually version 3.1 or higher), whether it meets the AT
specification or not.
icon
Something that represents something else. In Windows and other
graphical operating systems, including the World Wide Web, icons
are generally small graphical objects linked to programs,
documents or specific functions which can be loaded, started,
fetched or otherwise processed by clicking or double-clicking on
the graphical image.import
To bring data created with one type of software into another type
of software. A very common method of combining the results of
two programs. For example, data created with one database
program can be added to a different database using different
software by importing it. Different file types can also be
imported, for example a graphical object can be imported into a
word processing document for addition to the formatted text.
inkjet (Bubblejet) printer
Inkjet refers to a type of printer that uses fine sprays of
precisely-directed liquid ink to print, first marketed at a
reasonable consumer price by Hewlett Packard and used first in
their ThinkJet and and later the enormously popular DeskJet
printers. Bubblejet refers to Canon's inkjet technology, which
is virtually identical in function. Inkjet printers are much
quieter than dot matrix and daisy wheel printers, cost much less
than laser printers, and have a print quality which is
correspondingly between the two. Unfortunately, the ink
cartridges are expensive and require frequent replacement, making
inkjet printers the costliest per-page investment and a poor
choice for high volume printing.
integrate
The process of getting things to live, work and cooperate with
each other. A critical term in all facets of computing.
Integrated circuits are components housed in the same casing
designed to function as a discreet circuit. Integration of
software and hardware is the process of getting it to communicate
with other software and hardware in the system.
Due to the complexity of modern hardware and software, true
integration is viewed by most in the industry as either a myth or
an ideal to be strived for, not a reality.
Intel
American high-tech firm responsible for developing most of the
most-used microprocessors in PCs for more than a decade.
Designed and developed the first 8088, 8086 and 80186 through
80486 microprocessor chips as well as the Pentium chip.
interactive
Refers to software that responds to user input with actions
appropriate to the response. For example, answering a
questionnaire is not an interactive activity, but answering a
questionnaire whose questions change depending on the answers you
give would be interactive. This help tool, because it responds
to your requests for information and does not operate
independently of your requests, is interactive software.
interface
The connection between the user and the used; generally refers to
software and/or hardware designed to prompt a user for input and
recognize input. Also, the act of making such a connection.
Interfaces are also known as front ends, as opposed to back end
which usually refers to the operating system and/or the hardware.
interlacing
Interlacing refers to the way a monitor displays data on the
screen. An interlaced display refreshes the screen in two
passes, drawing only every other line in each pass. This results
in a flickering effect. Non-interlaced monitors draw the entire
screen in each pass, resulting in less visible flicker...but only
if the monitor's refresh rate is high enough.
Non-interlaced refers to a display or a display mode which writes
the whole screen in one pass.
Interlacing is also used with certain graphics formats, in
particular the GIF format, to allow previewing of large or
memory-intensive graphics while they load. Interlaced graphics
may require as many as six passes to fully display on the screen.
jaggies
The "stairstep effect" shown by graphical objects when sloped
lines or curves are shown on a pixel-mapped display. (Most
computer monitors are pixel-mapped.) Also refers to a similar
effect displayed by bitmapped graphics. particularly after they
have been resized or stretched in one direction.
joystick
A joystick is a an input device. The actual control is a stick,
rod or handle designed to control two devices called
potentiometers at the same time. The actual controls in a
joystick are like twin volume controls or balance controls on a
stereo system, and function in exactly the same way. Joysticks
are usually spring-loaded so that the "balance" always returns to
zero when the stick is released.jumper (shunt)
A small metal clip with a plastic sheath, usually about
three-sixteenths of an inch square, designed to connect two pins
on a circuit board. The proper term is shunt, but jumper has
become the accepted term for this device. They are also known as
Berg post jumpers or shorting posts.
laptop, notebook, subnotebook
These terms have absolutely nothing to do with a computer's
power, but instead concern size alone, and even then they are
fuzzy at best. Laptop refers to a portable computer with a
rechargeable onboard power supply which can be carried relatively
easily. Laptops can be the size of a briefcase. Notebook is
generally used to refer to a computer that meets the above
criteria and fits easily within a briefcase. Subnotebook is
smaller still, usually referring to a computer that takes up the
same or less room as a 1-1/2" three-ring binder.
Laser printers (extended topic)
Laser printers offer the highest quality of printout of all
consumer-level PC printers, and are now affordable enough to make
them viable as first family printers.
These printers function essentially like photocopiers scanners.
The computer tells the printer the layout of the ink on the page,
and the printer responds by reproducing the image on paper.
Lasers do not use ink, but a dry powdered substance called toner
which is also used by photocopiers. This toner is dispensed from
the toner cartridge onto a small rotating drum, where it has a
positive electrostatic charge. The laser uses the instructions
given by the computer to fire onto the drum, discharging the dry
toner onto the paper. This deposited toner is then bonded, or
fused, to the paper with a second roller which operates at very
high temperatures. Once the toner dries the image is smudge-free
and extremely sharp, especially if the paper is designed
specifically for photocopiers or laser printers. There are also
special, costlier papers for making ultra-sharp printouts which
really show off the printer's precision.
Laser printers offer the twin benefits of having the best print
quality and the lowest cost per page, with the disadvantages of
having a relatively high initial cost and a need for fairly
regular maintenance. Depending on the print quality desired,
type of connection used (parallel is preferred over serial), and
amount of memory required by the printout, lasers are also the
fastest of the common types of PC printers.
dot matrix printer, inkjet printer, daisy wheel printer, toner,
resolution
launch
Synonym for start or run. Launching an application or document
is the same as running it.
LHArc
LHArc: Lempel-Ziv/Huffman Archiving. This is a type of data
compression software designed for archiving data that needs to be
restored to perfect original condition in future, and uses two
separate compression schemes to achieve maximum reduction of file
sizes. No longer in popular private use; still extensively used
in software development as a space-saving tool.
license
In computing, the terms and restrictions assigned to a user of a
given piece of software. The license to use a book, recording or
piece of software -- not the words, music or software itself --
is what is purchased by the consumer. This is an important
distinction, and it is equally important to note that most
software licenses are limited and may be revoked at any time by
the copyright holder whether the person is in possession of a
purchased copy of the software or not.
light-emitting diode (LED)
A device which gives off visible light when current passes
through it. Once a standard readout device on electronic and
computer equipment; now used only when actual light is needed or
desirable. Most LED operations designed to display characters
(segmented displays) now use LCDs.
liquid crystal display (LCD)
The successor to the LED, a device for displaying variable
information in a fixed space. LCDs function by the application
of electrical current to a crystalline material suspended in a
film of other transparent material. The crystal itself turns
from being transparent in comparison to the medium in which it is
contained to being visible when electrical current is applied.
LCDs can be either monochrome, as is the case with most digital
watches; or full-color, as is the case with newer laptop screens.
LCDs are made from different types of materials and use different
sources of illumination depending on the circumstances in which
they are used. Most laptops use light sources located behind the
screen.
Grids of thousands of LCDs on a single panel are used for the
displays in laptop and notebook computers. Basic LCD displays
work on a simple on/off switching procedure and these are known
as passive matrix displays, as opposed to active matrix which
uses powered transistors to control the segments and refresh the
screen more frequently, allowing for crisper animation and better
mouse visibility.
Lotus
American software giant best known for making "spreadsheet" part
of the popular lexicon through the enormous sales of its 1-2-3
spreadsheet; now part of IBM. Also known for other products
including Ami Pro and Notes.Macintosh
Apple's long-lived GUI-based personal computer built around
Motorola's 68000-series CPU chip and the only serious contender
to IBM-compatible market supremacy for nearly a decade.
Introduced in the mid-1980s as an alternative to the IBM
PC-compatible, the Mac featured high-resolution graphics,
integrated component structure, a 3.5" floppy disk drive as
standard equipment, a mouse-driven interface, and a wide range of
other enhancements and alternatives to the PC and
last-of-the-line CP/M computers of the day.
Although many people believe the Mac is inferior both in value
and performance to the Commodore Amiga and Atari ST as a PC
implementation of the Motorola 68000-series CPU, Apple's
marketing has managed to keep the Mac at the forefront of
GUI-based computers, and its ease of use and simple maintenance
have insured it an ongoing place in the PC market. These last
two features have made it especially popular with educational
institutions.
mainframe
Term originally referring to the cabinet containing the central
processor unit or "main frame" of a large computer. After the
emergence of smaller `minicomputer' designs in the early 1970s,
the traditional big iron machines were described as "mainframe
computers" and eventually just as mainframes. The term carries
the connotation of a machine designed for batch rather than
interactive use, though possibly with an interactive timesharing
operating system retrofitted onto it; it is especially used of
machines built by IBM, Unisys, and the other great dinosaurs
surviving from computing's Stone Age. [Source: The Jargon File
3.0.0]
megabyte (Mb)
1,024,000 bytes of computer data. A megabyte is greater than a
million bytes because memory in blocks of 1,000 bytes or higher
are measured in multiples of 1,024. This is done because 1,024
is an exponent of two, which makes more computer sense and is
easier to work with than 1,000 which is an exponent of 10.
megahertz (MHz)
One million cycles (Hertz) per second.
memory
A widely misunderstood and misused term with novices. Memory,
strictly speaking, is any type of computer data storage,
permanent or temporary, including RAM, disks and tapes.
Practically speaking, however, disks and tapes are almost never
referred to in terms of memory, but instead are referred to in
terms of their storage capacity . This distinction prevents a
lot of confusion, since memory is usually used to refer to the
hardware's physical capacity for running programs and processing
data at normal computing speeds. Chip memory is thousands of
times faster than storage memory.
To make matters even more confusing, virtual memory allows hard
disks and other storage media to be used as slow forms of memory.
In short, memory refers to the chips on the system that store or
process data, not to disks and other media designed primarily for
storage.
microprocessor
A generic term that usually refers to a large-scale integrated
circuit; a hardware component consisting of multiple transistors
or switches miniaturized to allow several dozen to several
million components to fit within a single housing, which includes
instructions for processing data.
Microsoft (MS)
Microsoft, a software publishing firm headquartered in the US and
led by Bill Gates III. Developers of MS-DOS and Windows as well
as many consumer and business-level software products in wide if
not nearly universal use. Responsible for more than 80 percent
of the IBM-compatible operating system market.
Also (ms): abbreviation for manuscript.
mode, MODE.COM
State or attitude. Concerning computers, the state or
configuration of a piece of hardware or software (e.g. "Windows
usually boots in enhanced mode to provide access to its
multitasking features, but you can also use standard mode, which
will get a single task done faster.") As hacker slang, the
current state of mind or attitude of the individual (e.g. "I've
been up all night taking care of a problem I didn't cause, so be
warned: I'm in vengeance mode right now.")
MODE.COM is a DOS program designed to set many device parameters,
including keyboard layout and international alphabets, printer
and serial port settings.
monochrome
Having only one color. Indicates that a program or computer
monitor can only display one color: with monitors, usually white,
orange, amber or green.motherboard
The main circuit board on a computer which houses the CPU and to
which all other peripheral devices used by the computer must be
connected.
Motion Pictures Experts Group (MPEG)
Known mainly to computer users as the body responsible for
developing the MPEG compression standard used for full motion
video on computers. This compression scheme usually requires
hardware in order to display video at a reasonable resolution and
in full-screen mode as opposed to a small window, but it is
usable on most 486-plus computers for small animations and
videos.
MPEG has also developed data compression schemes for audio as
well, which allow near-CD-quality audio in as little as 1/20 the
space normally required. This allows artists to offer
full-length songs in stereo for download on bulletin boards and
the Internet in files just a few megabytes in size, instead of
the dozens of megabytes required for full CD audio quality.
MPEG-encoded audio files usually have the MP2 extension.
MPEG is expected to be the standard for computer video for the
next several years.
Norton, Peter Norton
Peter Norton is legendary as the developer of Norton Utilities,
the most popular PC utilities package in history, now marketed by
Symantec. Other extremely popular products bearing Norton's name
are Norton Commander, a much-loved DOS command shell; Norton
Desktop, a favorite Windows utility package and interface
replacement; and Norton Navigator, a series of extensions for
Windows 95. Norton Utilities are considered to be the most
useful and essential utilities package in existence for serious
PC tinkerers.
"Norton" products are published by Symantec, which in 1994 merged
with Central Point software, their closest competitor.
Novell, Novell Netware
American software giant responsible for the world's most popular
Local Area Networking software for the DOS operating system,
which is known as Netware. Also involved in consumer-level
marketing as publishers of Novell DOS and now as the owners of
WordPerfect.
null modem cable, nullmodem
A "modem-eliminator adapter", an inexpensive cable designed to
connect two computers via their serial ports, occasionally used
for file transfers but more often used for low-speed networking
via serial ports.
operating system (OS)
Operating systems are the programs or collections of programs
which act as translators between a computer's processing chips
and programs designed to run on them. They are pretty useless on
their own, like an empty house with no furniture. They only
become useful when other programs apply them to specific tasks.
Examples of operating systems are DOS, Windows, OS/2, UNIX and
Macintosh's System/Finder. Because of the way they are packaged,
many people confuse operating systems themselves and operating
system packages . Windows' Notepad and Paintbrush are not part
of the operating system, but rather are bundled programs designed
to be used with it.
Operating System/2 (OS/2, Warp)
IBM's successor to MS-DOS and Windows, originally a joint project
between Microsoft and IBM. Microsoft later decided to develop
Windows as an operating system in its own right. Said by
hardcore hackers to be a vastly superior operating system to
Windows, both OS/2 2.1 and OS/2 3.0 (also known as Warp) suffered
from an inability to walk novice users through elementary tasks
at even Windows' poor level, and thus never became the serious
challengers to Windows which industry watchers had hoped.
OS/2 is a superb platform for many memory- and
processor-intensive applications; a bust as a consumer-level
operating system. Another victim of Betamax syndrome; often
derogatorily referred to by ardent Windows fans as "half the
operating system".
overlay
Refers to part of a DOS program that resides in a separate file
from the main program file and is loaded into memory as needed
for its functions. Overlays are used to get around DOS' 640K
memory limit and allow DOS programs to perform functions or
groups of functions which would otherwise require more than the
maximum available amount of DOS memory.
pack, unpack
These are usually used as slang terms for archive and unarchive
which have fallen into common usage. Packing refers to
processing a file or set of files using data compression or
backup software for the purpose of archiving, copying or
transmission. Unpacking, naturally, refers to the process of
extracting the compressed data.
Not to be confused with PAK.EXE , file compression software from
NoGate Consulting; or PKPAK.EXE/PKUNPAK.EXE , programs by PKWARE
which are designed to process specific types of compressed
archives.parameter, argument
Refers to a legal value used by a specific piece of software or
hardware, but it is also used to refer to commands designed for
inputting these values. For example, Windows Help offers several
optional commands for loading helpfiles. The command winhelp -i
port pclex.hlp will take you directly to the definition for
"port", because that's how the software was created. However,
"-i" is a command, not a parameter, since it tells WINHELP.EXE to
jump to a specific topic. The parameters are "port", the topic;
and "pclex.hlp", the specific helpfile containing that topic.
Argument and parameter are often used interchangeably, although
strictly speaking an argument is a variable command that is fixed
while a parameter is considered to have a potential range of
values. Arguments also refer to commands issued in actual
programming which have one-way, fixed values.
In casual conversation, parameter and argument are both often
used to refer to all additional commands added to a program
launch command. While this is not technically correct, as shown
above, it is still very common.
paste
Refers to working with the clipboard. Data copied or cut from
one file is placed into another by pasting from the clipboard.
patch
Either a fix for an existing problem, a file used to replace code
in an existing product for purposes of fixing bugs or updating
features, or the act of fixing a bug.
Path types (extended topic)
A path is the "street address" of a file or directory, and
specifies the route that must be taken through the disk's
directory structure to get to it. It functions like a street
address in reverse, with the "country" name (drive) first and the
street number (name of the specified file or directory) last.
Paths are usually referred to one of four ways: full path,
directory path, absolute path and relative path. Refer to the
extended topic on path types. for more information on path syntax
for DOS and Windows.
There are four main methods of describing paths in DOS and
Windows: full path, directory path, absolute path and relative
path.
Full path: the complete path of a file. Includes all directories
above the file and the full name of the target file. For
example:
C:\WINDOWS\SYSTEM.USER.EXE
is the path to a file used by Windows called USER.EXE .
Directory path: the complete path of a file or directory but
without the name of the file itself. Directory paths are usually
used to point to a directory where files are to be saved or where
a specific file or group of files may be found. For example,
Windows system files are usually located in the directory path:
C:\WINDOWS\SYSTEM
Under standard DOS and Windows syntax, a directory path does not
always have to include the trailing slash, although the rules
regarding this syntax vary from program to program.
Absolute path and relative path: used in relation to the
directory in which the user is working. Absolute path includes
the full path or directory path including the drive letter. For
example:
C:\WINDOWS\SYSTEM\USER.EXE
is the absolute path for the file USER.EXE regardless of the
current working directory. However, if the user is currently in
the C:\DOS directory, the relative path would be written as an
"up-and-over" path, like so:
..\WINDOWS\SYSTEM\USER.EXE
The two dots here stand for "up one level of directories".
PGA
Pin grid array , an arrangement used for contact pins on many
newer CPU chips (80386 and up) in which the pins on the chip are
laid out in a grid that looks a little like a bed of nails. This
arrangement allows for easier connection of chips that need a
large number of contact points with the circuit board.
Also: Professional Graphics Adapter : a graphics hardware and
software standard introduced by IBM in 1984 and designed for
high-end desktop publishing, graphics and CAD work, it was so
advanced the graphics card used a more powerful processor than
the computer itself. The first 256-color standard, but it was so
expensive that it was never widely accepted.
piracy
Piracy is the act of making illegal or unlicensed copies of a
piece of software in violation of the author or publisher's
copyright. Technically in the US it is a civil matter below a
certain dollar value (generally believed to be around $2,000).
Piracy is a very serious issue with publishers, who believe
billions are lost each year to unlicensed use of software. In an
attempt to minimize the illegal use of software, many publishers
have implemented copy protection schemes at one time or another,
but this has largely gone by the wayside due to the inconvenience
to authorized users.
Many industry watchers believe a large part of the industry
outcry over the alleged billions lost to piracy is a scare
tactic, as those who routinely pirate software generally would
not pay, or be able to pay, for their unauthorized copies; and
those who do not understand the concept of illegal use of
software are generally willing to pay for their software once
they understand the concept of licensing.
pixel (pel)
A defined area on a graphic display (computer monitor). Most
computer graphics are measured in terms of their pixel size,
which varies depending on the size and type of the monitor
display. The standard sizes for IBM-compatible, Macintosh, and
high-resolution Atari and Amiga displays are 480 pixels in height
by 640 pixels in width. Not to be confused with dot , which is
an area on a computer screen itself a single pixel of data can
cover several dots .
PKZIP (extended topic)
Believed by many to be the single most common IBM-compatible
software program in use in the world (excluding programs included
as part of operating systems such as DOS and Windows). Archiving
software designed to combine and compress files for ease of
storage and transmission.
PKZIP is the brainchild of Phil Katz, an American programmer. He
began his career by developing an archiving and unarchiving
program with superior performance to the then market leader, SEA
(Systems Enhancement Associates) ARC. He named the program
PKARC, but lost a suit with SEA and thus the right to use the
name ARC. He subsequently renamed the program to PKPAK, and
while ARC software is now obsolete, PKUNPAK is still in wide use
for processing the tens of millions of ARC-compressed files still
in existence.
Katz later refined the ARC compresson routines into his own
unique compression scheme known as PKZIP. Its speed, efficiency
and versatility soon made it the clear market leader. PKZIP's
supremacy was threatened for a brief time in the early 1990s by
rival upstart ARJ, created by Robert K. Jung, and the free LHA
program created by Haruyasu Yoshizaki. Both offered superior
compression results until the 1993 release of PKZIP version 2.x,
at which time Katz' software regained and at this writing
retains supremacy in the world of IBM-compatible file
compression.
program
A set of binary instructions executed by a computer for a given
purpose, also the act of creating a set of binary instructions
for execution. Alternatively, from the Jargon File: "A magic
spell cast over a computer allowing it to turn one's input into
error messages." As opposed to data, which is the raw material
for programs to mangle and destroy.public domain (PD)
Refers to a work whose copyright has either expired over time or
been released to the public by the copyright holder. Property of
the public; freely usable in any otherwise legal form.
Random Access Memory (RAM)
The basic term for the chip memory used on all computers for
running programs. The "random" comes from the fact that RAM
chips are designed to be accessed at any point by the CPU with
virtually the same amount of speed. The 500,000th bit of a one
megabit chip can be accessed just about as quickly as the first
bit. RAM differs from ROM (read-only memory) in that RAM can be
erased and rewritten thousands of times a second whereas data in
ROM is permanent.
readme, README files
According to many veteran computer users, these files are so
named because people won't read them. These are text files
containing important information either included with a software
package or left in the root directory of an Internet FTP site for
the benefit of users. Not intended to be ignored or chuckled
at but to be read. In the case of shareware and freeware
software, the README may be the only documentation available for
the program.
repetitive strain injury (RSI)
Exactly what it would appear to be: injury which occurs as a
result of repeated strain to the same tissues (bones, muscle,
skin, etc.). RSI is used specifically in terms of computing
because of the high risk of RSI faced by those who work with
computers on a daily basis. The simple act of typing on a
standard QWERTY keyboard places strain on the hands and wrists,
which is worsened by improper wrist, elbow and shoulder support.
The result of long-term repeated strain is injury to the wrists,
hands or shoulders, and there are many varieties of RSI suffered
by typists and computer operators. It is believed the most
common is tendosynovitis, inflammation of tendons in the wrist
which results in pain in the hands and forearms. Less common,
but far more publicized, is the crippler carpal tunnel syndrome,
in which actual physical damage has been done to the wrist.
RSI's can be avoided or reduced in severity through the use of
proper typing and mouse posture, supports to the hands, wrists
and shoulders, frequent breaks, and according to recent reports,
vitamin B6 as a treatment for inflamed nerve endings.
resolution
Resolution in computing terms is a measure of clarity and
sharpness, and is applied to both printers and video displays.
The two types of hardware use very different methods of measuring
resolution; see the individual definitions for details.
routine
A routine is a sequence of instructions issued by a program with
a beginning, a middle, and an end, that does not necessarily need
the rest of the program to function. For example, the display of
this topic by Windows Help is a routine, and it could be
accomplished as a separate, much simpler program if it was all
that was necessary for the program. Most usable software is
composed of groups of routines, which are also referred to as
subroutines.
screen saver, screen blanker
A piece of software designed to prolong the useful life of a
computer monitor by monitoring computer activity and altering the
display when no activity is detected for a period of time.
Screen savers usually monitor mouse and keyboard but can also be
configured to watch printer and modem as well.
The most elementary form of screen saver is a screen blanker,
which simply replaces the image on the screen with a blank screen
until activity at the monitored devices is detected. Screen
savers can be extremely sophisticated, and some, such as Razzle
Dazzle and After Dark, have become popular "toy" programs in
their own right.
Screen savers prolong monitor life by preventing fixed objects on
a screen, such as a window which stays in a fixed position for a
long period of time each day, from "burning into" the phosphor at
the front of the monitor until the image becomes a permanent part
of the display. This effect can be seen most vividly on old
coin-operated video game units, but the greenish color on older
television sets is also a result of burn-in.
script
Series of instructions, usually text, used to control the
processing of data by an application; usually refers to
user-generated instruction sets. AUTOEXEC.BAT and WIN.INI are
examples of scripts. Macros are also referred to as scripts,
although not all macros require scripted text files in order to
function.
Scripting is also a term used to refer to programming in
languages such as PERL or BASIC that use interpreters to process
instructions rather than building compiled binary executables.
Many telecommunications programs include their own scripting
languages.
sector
A sector is a fraction of a track, and the smallest physical
measurement of disk usage.
All files are assigned specific sectors on which they can store
their data, and while a file can share part of a track with
another file, it cannot share free space in a sector. While
tracks are laid out on a disk like rings on a cut tree trunk,
sectors are laid out like sections of a track, somewhat similar
to divisions on a clock face. The standard size for sectors on
floppy disks is 512 bytes, or an area one ninth of one of the
eighty tracks on a 1.44Mb floppy. Most hard disks have sector
sizes of 2,048 bytes, but this size can vary depending on the
type of formatting and data access used.
Sector can also refer to a division of a given area, such as a
part of a playing field or three-dimensional representation, and
the sector is usually represented by its x , y and (3D only) z
coordinates.self-extracting archive (SFX)
A compressed archive which has been specially processed to turn
it into a runnable program. The procedure adds a small amount of
code to the start of the archive file so that it can be extracted
and used by the end user without the need for a local copy of the
necessary decompression software.
Long shunned in telecommunications because of the ease with which
viri and trojan horses could be attached to the executable code,
SFX's are rapidly becoming the preferred form for distribution of
software via Internet, and particularly for Microsoft Windows,
because of the ease of use of this particular type of file.
shareware
A method of software distribution developed in the early 1980s as
a means of allowing free distribution of commercial-quality
software on BBS', online services and via low-cost disk sales
which allows the author to still be paid for their work.
Shareware originally meant any software offered expressly to be
shared between users but has since become a term synonymous with
try-before-you-buy. The idea is to allow the user a free trial
period of the software (usually 30 days) before requiring that
payment be made for the software if it is kept.
Shareware typically offers bonuses to those who pay to register a
license for the software, since it is traditional not to cripple
try-before-you-buy in any fashion, and without an incentive to
purchase most people will not register the software. This help
tool was originally shareware.
spreadsheet
Spreadsheet refers either to a piece of software designed to
allow for virtual viewing of data, usually numerical or
mathematical. The term can also refer to a table of data created
with such software, although the term worksheet is used here
instead so as not to confuse the software and the data it
creates.
Spreadsheets derive their name from the fact that the visible
"sheet" of information can spread beyond the screen boundaries of
the computer or terminal on which the data is viewed.
Spreadsheet tables might have only five visible columns or rows
onscreen but have several dozen more spread to the right past the
visible boundary of the monitor, and these are accessed by
shifting the view of the spreadsheet to the desired columns and
rows.
The most common application for spreadsheets is the organization
of financial data, although they can be used for statistical
analysis of virtually any kind of numerical data. Modern
spreadsheets also often contain databasing and word processing
features. These are not technically part of the spreadsheet
itself, but merely extensions to it.
Stacker
Prior to Microsoft's MS-DOS 6.0 release, which included
Doublespace disk compression software, Stacker was the most
widely used disk compression software on the IBM-compatible.
Developed by STAC Electronics, Stacker has featured superior
compression, speed and reliability to all competing products for
several years.
Trivia
Industry-watchers widely credit STAC for Microsoft having to
release several updates to MS-DOS 6.0. Microsoft left serious,
data-destroying bugs in the first version of Doublespace and in
1994 were successfully sued by STAC who claimed that Doublespace
violated STAC's copyright. Microsoft denies all such claims, of
course.
Super VGA (SVGA)
Consumer graphics display standard for the mid-1990s. Allows
color depth higher than the 256,000 color maximum provided by VGA
and a screen resolution of 800x600 pixels (the VGA standard is
640x480).
system clock
A calibrated quartz crystal used as the computer's internal
timing device. Depending on the shape of the crystal, it
vibrates at a constant rate with the application of electricity
providing a stable pulse that the system uses to time various
functions. The speed of a system clock is measured in megacycles
or megaHertz, and this speed is usually used as the rating speed
for the CPU on 386's and higher (e.g. a 486DX-33MHz uses a 33MHz.
system clock)
SYSTEM.DAT, USER.DAT
Two critical new system files used by Windows 95 to store a wide
range of information. Collectively they are known as the
registry. Most of the information contained here was formerly
contained in the WIN.INI and SYSTEM.INI files used by Windows
3.11 and earlier. These files are so important that they should
be backed up daily by anyone who makes frequent changes to their
system, as virtually every new Windows 95 program makes some kind
of change to these files, and personalized system settings are
also stored here.
tape backup unit
A peripheral device for archiving data in a tape format. Tape
backup units can either be built-in or external units which use
tape cartridges a little smaller than an audio cassette to create
backup copies usually of hard disk data. These units were
usually reserved for business use due to their high cost but
around 1994 costs came down to the point where a large percentage
of home computers now have tape backup.
These devices have capacities ranging from 20Mb (older style) to
over 500Mb, and are the most cost-effective archive storage
method in use today for the average computer owner. They have
one drawback: speed. Copying and retrieving backup data on tape
is a slow process.
task
Geekspeak for "chore". Each program or process within a program
is represented to the operating system as a task to be performed,
hence "multitasking" and "task switching". A single Windows
application can have several tasks running at once; most DOS
applications only have one.
To see which tasks are running at any given moment within
Windows, press and hold the Ctrl key and tap Esc. A program
called Task Manager will pop up. Unfortunately this will not
give you a true picture of the tasks running within Windows,
since many applications run certain tasks hidden from the
operator.
In Windows 95, Task Manager is called with Ctrl+Alt+Delete, which
is not a key combination to be used with Windows or DOS, since it
may reboot the computer.task switching
Often confused with multitasking. Task switching is the ability
of an operating system to allow more than one application in
memory at the same time and permit the operator to switch between
them. It is not multitasking, although the line is a very thin
one. For example, Windows 3.0 allowed the user to have many
programs in memory at once and switch between them at will, but
it did not permit more than one program to perform operations.
Windows 3.1 is allegedly a multitasking operating system, but
since it assigns processor time to one application at a time in
tiny slices, technically it is still a task switching operating
system; it only looks like true multitasking because the
switching happens so rapidly.
terminate-stay resident (TSR)
A personal computer program designed to be run once which then
remains in memory for the use of other programs; this permits its
features to be accessed without the need for individual programs
to duplicate the functions of this program. TSR's are designed
both to eliminate the need for extra code in other programs and
to improve or augment the performance of existing programs.
text editor
A program designed for the creation or modification of text-only
(non-binary) datafiles.
text file, ASCII file
Generally speaking, a file containing readable text with only the
standard typewriter characters and no special characters or
formatting, although it can loosely refer to files which contain
IBM graphical characters such as bars and line drawing symbols.
Such files are also referred to as ASCII files.
trackball
This device is an alternative input device to the mouse which
functions essentially in the same way. Trackballs are used where
desk space is not sufficient for the use of a mouse, especially
with laptops and notebooks, where the user may have difficulty
moving the wrists due to injury or other constraints (smaller
trackballs can be held in the hand and do not need a flat
surface), or where there is an ergonomic need for an alternative
input device, such as in the case of repetitive strain injury.
trojan horse
A computer program which carries within itself a means to allow
the creator of the program access to the system using it.
upgrade, update
These two terms are widely misused by consumers. Upgrade
generally refers to a major improvement or major change (as many
users discover, upgrades are not always improvements) in a piece
of hardware or software. Update usually refers to an improvement
designed to fix or patch a bug or to accommodate changes in
software or hardware which the particular product is frequently
used with. For example, Windows 95 is an upgrade over Windows
3.1, but Windows 95 is only an update to the Windows 95 beta test
version which had been available for over a year before Win95's
release.
US Robotics
The world's most successful modem manufacturers since the late
1980s. Known as manufacturers of high quality modems at
reasonable consumer-level prices, their Sportster model has been
the single largest-selling line of modems in history. Also
famous for the notorious HST protocol and for their higher-end
Courier modems. Loved by users and servicepeople alike for their
ease of use, reliability and overall simplicity of installation;
hated for their tendency to develop new high-speed data
transmission standards that don't become adopted industry-wide
and limit the compatibility of their hardware.
utility
Usually used to distinguish a type of program from an
application. Utilities are usually said to perform functions
related to the maintenance of hardware and data rather than
direct data manipulation. Utility can also be used to refer to
any program which alters data in files but does not necessarily
create new, usable data, or which is designed for the purpose of
maintenance and/or tuning of the computer. A fuzzy term with no
precise meaning.UUE/UUD (uucode/uuencoding/uudecoding)
A method of encoding binary (non-text) files into a format using
standard characters used in text messages and a fixed line length
of 62 characters to enable transmission of binary data on
networks such as email or USENET which do not normally permit
transmission of non-text data. Frequently used to post binary
files to newsgroups.
version, revision
Version and revision are used interchangeably to describe the
state of a given piece of technology, and version numbers are the
computer industry equivalent of model years for cars. Version
and revision are also used as slang terms for the act of applying
version and revision numbers to products (e.g. "When Microsoft
versioned Windows in 1992 to 3.1, many people felt they should
have versioned it 4.0 because of its improvements over 3.0.").
Version numbers are not always sequential. For example,
Microsoft released Word for Windows 2.0 and then released their
next version as 6.0. There was no version 3,4 or 5 on the
Windows platform.
There are few standards used for versioning, but revisioning is
usually done using dates, or revision dates. For example, a
program named SuperStuff might be versioned Superstuff Revision
0495 to indicate that it was last updated April of 1995. Some
programs are revision dated down to the hour.
Video Graphics Array (VGA)
The successor to EGA and the standard from the late 1980s to
about 1994 for personal computer graphics. Originally introduced
as the IBM color graphics standard used on Personal System/2
(PS/2) series of home computer models, the standard has undergone
several updates and enhancements.
Virtual Address Extension (VAX)
The most successful minicomputer design in industry history,
possibly excepting its immediate ancestor, the PDP-11. Between
its release in 1978 and its eclipse by killer micros after about
1986, the VAX was probably the hacker's favorite machine of them
all. [Source: The Jargon File 3.0.0] Manufactured by DEC.
VisiCalc
The first widely-used spreadsheet program, available for UNIX,
Apple ][, CP/M and many other platforms of its day. Obsolete.
spreadsheet, Lotus, Apple, CP/M, UNIX
warm boot
To restart an operating system without physically shutting off
power to the computer. The components are still "warm", or
receiving electricity, while the computer is restarted. Usually
faster than cold booting and often a method of recovering data
since a warm boot does not erase the contents of certain types of
memory. Warm boots are always reboots.
wizard
A term apparently concocted by Microsoft to describe a type of
walk-through help developed initially for their Microsoft Office
suite of applications (Word, Excel and PowerPoint) and now
implemented on a wide range of Windows 3.1 and Window 95
applications. Wizards are designed to assist novice users
through step-by-step processes, ranging in complexity from the
installation of new software to the creation of complete desktop
publishing documents, without requiring the use of the manual or
any prior knowledge of the program.
This topic is also the first screen of a demonstration wizard
created to show how the process works. Click the Next Topic
button to continue with this short demo.
WordPerfect
Refers either to WordPerfect Corporation, an American software
giant most notable for their WordPerfect software. Wordperfect
is also novice slang for any word processing program (e.g. "What
kind of wordperfect do you use? I prefer Word for Windows
myself.")
word processing
The act of formatting a text document which may also contain
graphics for purposes of viewing or printing, usually by others.
The line between word processing and desktop publishing has
become blurred in recent years; the sophistication of modern word
processors now gives them facilities once reserved for desktop
publishing software and vice versa.word processor
A piece of software designed to process text into documents for
printing or transmission. Word processors are used for both the
development of new documents and the alteration and reformatting
of existing documents.
workstation
A network term that refers to a computer designed both for
stand-alone work and connection with a network. Also a generic
term referring to high-end UNIX PCs such as those made by Digital
Equipment Corp. and Sun Microsystems.
Slang: can also refer to the operating environment or workspace
where such a computer is located.
write-protect
Write protection is the application of a measure to any writable
storage medium to prevent data from being written to it. Write
protection usually refers to floppy disks. 3-1/2" floppy disks
can be protected against accidental writes by closing a small
window on the disk by sliding the tiny black tab designed for the
purpose over the window. 5-1/4" disks use a different type of
write protection. These disks have square notches in the sides
of them, and covering this notch with adhesive tape of any kind
will prevent it from being written.
Hard disks can also be write protected, but this requires special
software and in most cases this kind of protection isn't
practical since Windows needs to be able to write to its swapfile
quite frequently on most systems with less than 12Mb of memory.
xBase
A generic term used to refer to any database or database
management software which is compatible with the industry
standard dBASE format developed by Ashton-Tate. Packages that
use the dBASE file format are said to be xBase products, and
there are literally tens of thousands in use. dBASE is currently
at version V (5); the base industry standard for xBase is dBASE
III compatibility. dBASE was the first widely-used database
products to provide full relational database capability on the
PC.
Essential computing terms and concepts
What exactly is meant by...
Introduction Memory? Boot? Format?
Modem? SIG? Prompt? Shell?
UNIX? Hacker? File and directory? Software and
program?
Virus and trojan? DOS and Windows? ZIP or compressed archive?
BBS or Bulletin
Board System?
Hard disk and floppy disk? Bits, bytes, kilobytes and megabytes?
Installation, setup and
configuration? Path?
This is a collection of important words and concepts every
computer enthusiast needs to know. In this section, you'll be
offered detailed explanations of many critical concepts and terms
useful to anyone computing in the late 1990s. You'll also be
offered other resources to enhance your understanding and skill.
As always, go as far with this as you feel necessary for the task
at hand. There's probably far more information here than you
need, but better to have it and not need it than to need it and
not have it.
Even if you're not a beginner, you'll probably find a lot of
interesting trivia and computing facts you didn't know before.
This page will help you get a lot more out of the hardware and
software you have by letting you focus less on what it is and
more on what it does.
What are bits, bytes, kilobytes and megabytes?
A bit is the smallest amount of data you can have on a computer.
A bit can be either a 0 or a 1. It's like a switch...one
switch...that can be on or off.
A byte is eight bits, or a combination of eight on-off
switches. It sounds pretty meaningless until you see bytes as
similar to LED letters and numbers. Think of each segment is a
bit, and the combination of these segments, on or off, make up
all the letters and numbers in your computer's alphabet.
Here are all eight bits shown as on or 1, which might represent
the switches necessary to display all segments in our eight-piece
(8-bit) LED display. It appears here as an 8 with slashes in the
two loops. Naturally if they were all set to off, all segments
would be invisible, creating a blank or "null" character. (Every
computer's alphabet reserves at least one such character.)
Here, two segments have been turned to off or 0 to create the
letter R.
And here, three segments have been set to 0 to make a 6
character.
These eight segments combine to make all the letters in the
most basic PC alphabet: the eight-bit character set. This isn't
a perfect example of how it works, because some of the characters
made from combinations of these segments won't look like anything
you would recognize as a normal character. What's important is
not so much that you understand all 256 possible combinations,
but that your computer does. Most software simplifies the
translation so that all you need to know are the alphabet,
numbers and punctuation keys on your keyboard.
Here's where things get a little strange
A kilobyte might logically seem to be 1,000 bytes. It isn't.
Instead, it's 1,024 bytes, and it's interesting the way this
works. These multiples are actually exponents, or powers of 2.
8 is 2 cubed (2 to the 3rd power); 1,024 is 2 to the 10th power.
Here's where it gets interesting (not to mention confusing) since
kilo- almost always means 1,000 in other contexts.
A megabyte is a million-plus, or 1,048,576 bytes, or 2 to
the 20th power.
Gigabyte, the current level of measurement used for PC hard
disk storage, is a billion-plus; 1,073,741,824 bytes or (you
guessed it) 2 to the 30th power.
Terabyte, more often used theoretically than practically,
represents a trillion-plus bytes; 1,099,511,627,766 to be exact.
Tera here has nothing to do with three, since it represents 2 to
the 40th power.
What's interesting is how close these base-2 exponents come
to being base-10 large round numbers, and how each three
additional zero's is exactly 10 powers of 2 higher than the
previous three. It stems from the fact that 1024 is 2 to the
10th power.
What is memory...exactly?
There are more than a dozen types of memory in the average PC
today, including static, extended, video, shadow, upper, cache,
virtual, and a few others. But there are two specific types of
memory you need to know about. If you don't know about them,
then you can't know your computer's capabilities.
RAM memory
Storage memory
Short-term and long-term memory
RAM memory
The first type is called RAM memory (Random Access Memory), or
chip memory as it is sometimes referred to elswhere in this
guide. RAM or chip memory is a collection of millions of
switches stored on the computer's chips. These are extremely
fast switches, able to turn on or off millions of times a second,
and they require electrical current to stay fixed in either the
on or off position. The contents of your RAM disappear every
time you turn off your computer.
RAM memory exists to help programs run and run quickly
enough to be usable to you. It is possible to have a working
computer without RAM memory chips, but it would be dreadfully
slow.
Storage memory
The second type is storage memory, and almost no one calls this
memory any more. It's simply called storage, disk storage, or
disk space, because this type of memory uses your hard disk or
floppy disks to hold data rather than the chips themselves.
If your computer had to process information using only your
disks, it would take at least 100 times longer for almost every
computing task, so this type of memory is only used normally for
long-term storage of data.
Short-term and long-term memory
Think of your computer's chips as short-term memory that changes
in content thousands of times a second with each new task the
computer performs, and disappears every time you turn off the
computer. Think of disks as long-term storage that might only
change a few times a day. In fact, most of the data on your
disks will never change at all.
Your computer can use chips to store some data over the long
term, but long-term chip storage is extremely expensive. A
1.44Mb floppy disk costs about fifty cents. A megabyte (a
million bytes) of
hard disk storage costs between thirty and fifty cents. A meg of
RAM in chip form (almost all PC RAM chips are sold as modules
called SIMMs, or Single In-line Memory Modules) cost about $50 in
July of 1995.
What's the difference between a hard disk and a floppy disk?
If you've never seen the inside of your computer, you might not
know that there is a another disk drive inside that you can't
access by hand and will usually never see from the front panel.
This hard disk (also called a hard drive by some oldtimers) is
actually one or several metal disks -- not the flexible plastic
type -- usually about three inches around and vacuum-sealed in a
steel case.
The difference between these hard metal disks and the floppy
disks and compact disks you feed your computer from the front
panel is a lot like the difference between a cheap audio tape and
a high-performance metal cassette. Metal tapes sound better on a
tape player because they can store more audio information in the
same amount of space. Metal disks work faster in your computer
because they can store more data in the same amount of space than
regular floppies. In fact, today's hard disks can store the
equivalent of the contents of thousands of floppy disks.
Storage for now, storage for later
"Data expands to fill the container"
Maintenance-free media
Storage for now, storage for later
The hard disk is the disk you use most often for storing your
files. The hard disk is what holds Windows, DOS and all of your
most-used programs. Floppy disks are only commonly used today
for keeping backup copies, distributing new software, moving
files between computers, and sharing data with friends or
colleagues.
Floppy disks are also much slower than hard disks. If your
computer had to start Windows from data stored on floppy disks
instead of a hard disk, you might have to wait up to five minutes
before being able to run programs from Windows 3.1's Program
Manager or Win95's Start menu, and wait an additional minute to
five minutes when running any new programs from Windows.
Both floppies and hard disks are usually defined by how much
data they'll hold, or how much disk space they provide for
storing files. Hard disks an come in dozens of different sizes,
floppies in just a few. Storage space is measured using the same
units as memory -- bytes, kilobytes and megabytes -- because
disks are nothing more than a way to store information that can't
be stored permanently on your computer's memory chips.
"Data expands to fill the container"
Five years ago, 20 to 40 megabytes (20Mb) was considered a
standard size for most hard disks, and people wondered how they
could ever fill that much space. Today, most experts recommend a
minimum of 500 megabytes of total hard disk space on your system
if you plan to run Windows or OS/2 and at least 100 megabytes if
you just use DOS. The latest version of WordPerfect alone will
overflow an old 20Mb hard disk, and it can consume twice that
amount of space if you install the Windows version
rather than the DOS version.
There's an axiom among computer professionals: "data expands
to fill the container". Essentially what this means is that if
you spend much time with your computer, it won't matter if you
have 100Mb or 10Gb...eventually you'll run out of room. We
recommend that serious Windows users have hard disks of at least
500Mb, and you will probably find anything less than 300Mb
difficult to work with if you get serious about using the
Internet.
Maintenance-free media
Hard disks are maintenance-free. They are hermetically sealed
and extremely sensitive to dust, so in most cases they'll never
need cleaning and can't be repaired if they break down.
Fortunately hard disks have become extremely durable over the
last decade, to the point where you might be able to drop a
brand-new hard disk on solid concrete and still use it. Ten
years ago, people were afraid to even touch their computers while
they were running for fear of damaging delicate hard disk
mechanisms.
Floppy disks are also considered to be maintenance-free.
When either a floppy disk or a hard disk stops working, it's
almost always cheaper to dispose of it than to make any attempt
to repair it.
There is an extensive guide to understanding floppy disks and
formatting available at the section linked to this button.
What are format and formatting?
Formatting has two meanings in computerdom. The first has to do
with the arrangement of data on a disk, and the second concerns
the arrangement of data inside of other data. The only type of
formatting you need to worry about for your first month or two
with a computer is disk formatting, and hopefully you won't even
need to deal with that.
The format is the layout -- or floor plan if you prefer --
that disks use for arranging their files and data. Floppy disks
and hard disks need a magnetic floor plan so that the data stored
on them can be arranged in an orderly manner. Tapes used in tape
backup drives and CDs also need a format. (In a sense, even your
computer's memory chips need a format, but this is something
you'll probably never need to know about.)
Formatting is usually a once-in-a-lifetime experience for a
hard disk or floppy. Once it has been done, it rarely needs to
be redone. Disks are magnetic media, just like cassettes and
videotapes, and all magnets tend to weaken with time and use.
But by the time a floppy or hard disk's magnetic strength drops
below useful levels, the hard disk is usually so old and so small
compared to the latest products that it's usually more sensible
to dispose of it than to reformat it.
The different types of formats
Each different computer type has its own method or "formula" for
formatting floppy disks and hard disks. A disk formatted for an
Apple Macintosh won't work on an IBM-compatible running DOS,
Windows, UNIX or OS/2 without re-formatting or the use of special
software designed to read Mac disks. The same is true of
IBM-compatible disks read on a Mac.
There is only one surviving standard size of floppy disk in
use on today's IBM-compatible, down from four standard sizes used
no more than a couple of years ago. There are still billions of
floppies in three other sizes in common use though, and it may
eventually be useful for you to know what these standard sizes
are.
Hard disks on the IBM-compatible don't have a storage size
standard since they aren't generally transferred from one
computer to another. Each manufacturer decides based on their
own test results the ideal size and format will be for their hard
disks, and these special parameters are applied by your
computer's hardware when the disk is formatted. Don't worry
about your hard disk's floor plan though. If it wasn't already
formatted, you wouldn't be reading this page.
There is an extensive guide to understanding floppy disks and
formatting available in the PC Owner's Survival Guide section
linked to this help button.
What is the difference between software and programs?
Let's start by defining what makes up a program. A program is a
chain of commands that get carried out by a computer. It's a
series of instructions that starts, does its thing, and stops.
It can perform its duties this either with or without further
instructions from you, depending upon how it was designed.
Software
Programs
Binaries and executables
Software
Before we define software, let's look at hardware first. The
bolts that hold a door on its frame are hardware, but practically
speaking so is the rest of the house, from the concrete
foundation to the roofing tiles. A bolt on its can't do
anything. You can't normally use it to eat ice cream, talk to it
or make it do your dishes. It has one purpose and one purpose
only: holding up your door. But the whole house is something you
can work and play with, something you can apply in many different
ways.
Software in your computer is like the hardware that makes up
your home. It has a specific purpose, and the sum total of all
your software is what gives your computer the power to do all the
many things it does for you.
Programs
A program is like an automatic door latch. The latch may open
and close at your command, but it needs the bolts and other
hardware which make up the sum total of the door and latch
mechanism before it all functions properly. The automatic latch
by itself is useless without a door to attach it to.
The latch mechanism is a piece of hardware, but of naturally
not all hardware is latch mechanism. In the same way, programs
are all software, but not all software is a program. In fact,
most software isn't a program.
Picture files and word processing documents are both
software, but you can't run a picture file or start a word
processing document because they normally have no mechanisms in
them for starting on their own. What you start is the program
designed to handle that particular type of data. Just like you
apply the latch to the task of opening and closing the door on
cue, you apply a program to the task of viewing or altering data.
(This is why programs are often referred to as applications.)
Binaries and executables
Two other terms used to describe software are binaries and
executables. Executable is just another word for program. A
binary file is generally considered to be any non-text type of
file. There are a total of 256 characters available in the
alphabet of today's PCs, Text generally uses only the first 128
characters in that alphabet. The other 128 characters are either
considered special characters for text formatting or used for
creating non-text data files.
Binary, of course, means "composed of bits", or 1's and 0's, but
the term has more or less passed into common usage as meaning
data which is non-text in nature.
What is the difference between DOS and Windows?
Both DOS and Windows qualify as programs. But they are special
types of programs known as operating systems. They have to
follow the rules laid down by your computer, but unlike most
other programs, they are also allowed to make the rules for how
other programs must behave when running on your computer. Think
of operating systems as a digital dwelling and your software as
the furnishings.
Operating systems are the programs or collections of
programs which act as translators between your computer's chips
and disks and your programs (or, if you like, applications).
They are pretty useless on their own, like an empty house with no
furniture. They only become useful when other programs apply
them to specific tasks.
DOS versus Windows
How do you tell the difference between DOS and Windows?
Confused? Blame the advertising agencies!
Until Windows 95, you needed both Windows and DOS
DOS versus Windows
DOS and Windows are both different types of operating systems.
DOS is the granddaddy of personal computer operating systems, and
Microsoft's MS-DOS is still the most popular OS in the world.
The difference between DOS and Windows is much like the
difference between a tent trailer and a ranch home. DOS is the
tent trailer. It can be dressed up in many ways, moved easily
from place to place and made livable, but it's hardly a place
where most people will feel comfortable setting down roots.
Windows, on the other hand, provides all the comforts of suburban
living, with the main disadvantage of being difficult to
transport from place to place. You can copy the basics of the
DOS operating system to a floppy disk in about ten seconds, and
have room left for many programs. You can't even fit the
absolute basics of Windows on a single floppy disk.
DOS will do just about everything Windows will do, for all
practical purposes, except run more than one program at the same
time. Like a tent trailer, it becomes uncomfortably crowded with
more than one occupant. With a little fancy interior decorating
you can make DOS look like Windows and feel like a ranch home,
but eventually you run into the severe limitations of such an
illusion. Unless you have highly sophisticated software designed
for the purpose (DesqView is one such program), you can't run two
programs at once in DOS. Windows will easily allow you to run
two programs at once -- or twenty --provided it has the real
estate, or memory, to work with.
How do you tell the difference between DOS and Windows?
It's actually very simple once you have seen both systems in
operation. DOS and Windows have two very different appearances.
When your computer first starts up, everything you see until the
hourglass
appears on your screen is DOS activity. You can also run DOS
programs from within Windows. You can tell you are running a DOS
program in most cases because all of your normal windows will
disappear while the DOS program is running and be replaced by a
much less pleasing-looking screen layout.
Confused? Blame the advertising agencies!
Understanding the differences between operating systems, and the
difference between the OS and the software it is designed to use,
is made considerably more difficult by the way DOS, Windows and
nearly all other OS' are sold. The actual operating system
software for DOS and Windows need only a select few files. But
there's no glamour in selling an operating system you can't do
anything with.
Think of it from the publisher's point of view. If you had
just invented the house, how would you market it? A big, empty
house will look pretty meaningless to people who have spent their
lives in tents or sleeping outdoors. What will make the house
appealing is showing how it can be put to use, with furniture and
decorations. We all grew up understanding what houses and
apartments are and how they are used. Most of us did not grow up
with an understanding of the difference between operating systems
and software.
For more than a decade it has been traditional for publishers to
package new operating systems as fully-furnished homes, complete
with bundles of programs you can use right away. DOS comes with
an editor, games, a simple programming language and a range of
file manipulation tools. Windows comes with word processors,
simple databases, games and a paint program. But Paintbrush and
Program Manager are not part of Windows, not strictly speaking.
Instead, they are applications or furnishings, ways you can apply
the Windows operating system in a useful manner.
Internet can also be thought of as a new operating system,
even though in practice it is actually more like a bundle. In
order to make it appealing to you, since you probably have no
idea how to make productive use of it, most providers supply you
with a suite of furniture to make it livable right away.
Until Windows 95, you needed both Windows and DOS
Here's where things become especially confusing. Until the
release of Windows 95, Windows itself wouldn't operate on the
average home computer unless you also had DOS. This arrangement
was like having a two-bedroom home that could only be entered
through your tent trailer. The idea behind this arrangement was
to allow Windows to be fully compatible with your old software,
so that you could dispose of your army cot and folding chairs and
purchase a queen-sized bed and livingroom suite when you were
ready to do so.
Unfortunately, this arrangement also made many of Windows'
operations ugly and, quite literally, as slow and cumbersome as
having to use a tent trailer to gain access to your ranch home.
You can be glad
those days are over...provided you can afford enough memory "real
estate" to give Windows 95 a nice yard to sit in.
What's the difference between files and directories?
Practically speaking. the difference between a file and a
directory is the same as the difference between a letter and an
envelope or file folder. A file is like a letter. It's what
holds your information. The directory is the envelope or the
file folder. Its sole purpose is to organize individual
documents and files.
Technically speaking, a file is any sequence of useful data
that has a beginning and an end, can be altered, and can be moved
from one place to another in one piece. A directory is nothing
more than a marker on your disk that allows you to quickly locate
specific files or groups of files.
It is only an accident of history that resulted in files and
directories being called by these names. If computers had
developed in a different way, we might be calling them parts and
boxes, objects and containers, particles and molecules, or even
soldiers and platoons. All these models have the same underlying
meanings, and any of them could have passed into common usage.
How files and directories are organized
Think of a floppy disk or hard disk as a big filing cabinet. You
can put all kinds of letters and objects inside of it. It can
even contain other envelopes that hold still more objects. Every
directory on your hard disk is like an envelope, and every one of
these digital envelopes has its own label that describes what it
contains. Files also have labels, or names, so that they can be
identified as easily as directories can.
Your WINDOWS directory is one example of a directory which
contains other directories. In fact, it is probably the fattest
file folder in your hard disk's filing cabinet. Inside of your
WINDOWS directory, you will find literally hundreds of files,
plus at least one other directory -- another file folder or
envelope -- called SYSTEM which contains even more files needed
by Windows and Windows' programs.
A directory can never be a file, and a file can never be a
directory. There are ways to make them pretend to behave like
each other, but down on the surface of your hard disk where it
counts, directories are never more than markers that behave like
containers for data.
The origins of the file/directory model
The idea for the file and folder model came from the origins of
computers. They have largely been developed and refined on
university campuses and the research departments of industry, and
the most similar models to computers in both environments are the
mountains of paper the employees of these institutions are
required to manage. Most of the developers were somewhat
insulated from the day-to-day business of the institutions that
employed them and probably had less experience with file folders
and filing cabinets than they had with directory listings and
catalogs, so directory came into popular usage rather than file
folder.
By the mid-1980s, developers began to realize that the notion of
directories confused many people, and several new computers that
emerged at that time, in particular the Apple Macintosh and Atari
ST, chose to use a file, folder and cabinet model to describe
files, directories and disks. Unfortunately, the directory
concept stuck on the IBM-compatible and lingers to this day, and
many people still look at this as proof of how inferior products
can still find ways to dominate the market.
Remember Sony's Beta videotape? Many experts believe it is
still a better system than VHS.
What is a shell?
You already know what a seashell is. It is designed to hold the
creature who lives in it and make its life easier. In terms of
your computer, shells have pretty much the same purpose. They
are programs whose reason for existence is to make other programs
easier to live with.
DOS itself is a shell...a shell for the chips in your
computer. But even if you were a DOS expert, you would be
totally lost if you had to communicate directly with DOS. You
would need to think and communicate in a completely different way
in order to use your computer. So DOS uses its own shell
program, a program called COMMAND.COM, as an interpreter.
COMMAND.COM traps your mistakes so that you can't bring DOS to a
crashing halt by typing the wrong command at the wrong time. It
also traps the mistakes of other programs, and for exactly the
same reason. Most useful of all, it communicates, or at least
tries to communicate, with you in something that might
occasionally look like plain English.
Shells within shells...
Windows has its own unique shell. In fact, it uses several.
Program Manager is the shell that sends start program messages to
the Windows operating system. But when Windows 3.1 wants to talk
to your hard disk, it has to talk to DOS first. When you run a
DOS program from within Windows, there is another layer of shell
between the program and DOS itself. DOS talks to Windows which
in turn talks to DOS again.
Even this software uses a shell, a program called
WINHELP.EXE which loads helpfiles such as this one into it for
browsing.
If all this is a little too confusing, think of shells as
interface software or interpreters. Regardless of how they look,
all shells are designed for this basic function: to make your
communication with the software or hardware that much easier and
more intuitive.
What is a path?
A path in computer-ese is just what you probably expect it to be:
the trail that leads you to the data you're looking for on your
hard disk. What's confusing about paths is the way they're
described.
Let's start with a real-life example of how paths work.
Imagine that you are standing on the corner of 1st St. and 1st
Ave. in your home town and you want to go to the bakery, which
is at 1772 13th St. The streets and avenues in your town are
numbered in sequence, so as long as you know the street address,
you can figure out how to get just about anywhere from anywhere
else. To get to the bakery you have to walk to 13th Street,
turn, and walk sixteen blocks down to number 1772. The address
of the bakery is also a path for you to follow.
Your hard disk works in the same logical fashion, except
that your hard disk probably behaves more like your real
hometown. The bakery probably isn't on 13th street, and 1772 may
not be sixteen blocks from 1st Avenue. It may be at 1772 Main
St., meaning that you have to know how to get to Main St. before
you can find the bakery.
A practical example
Here's an example of a path for a file you have on your
system right now called USER.EXE.
C:\WINDOWS\SYSTEM\USER.EXE
It's just like a street address in reverse. USER.EXE is the
bakery, the specific location you want to get to. SYSTEM is the
part of town it resides in, Windows is like the borough, and C:\
is like the state or province.
Getting to USER.EXE from where you are now is like getting
to the bakery from another state or country.
Your starting place is your keyboard. First you have to
enter your C:\ drive, then proceed to your WINDOWS directory,
then into another directory called SYSTEM, and finally stroll
through your SYSTEM directory until you spot USER.EXE.
The exact path is a direct, nonstop flight to your data
Knowing how to type exact paths is a lot like being able to take
direct, nonstop flights from anywhere on your system to anywhere
else. When you type C:\WINDOWS\SYSTEM\USER.EXE at the keyboard,
it takes you directly to the file you requested with no delays.
The key to being able to do this is to understand path syntax,
the navigating language used by your computer.
Unless you use specially-designed software to streamline the
job, paths on DOS and Windows computers always use the same
syntax, just like your street address. Your address reads like
this:
Your Name,
Street Number, Street Name,
City, State, ZIP
DOS and Windows paths read like this:
DRIVELETTER: \FIRST-DIRECTORY \NEXT-DIR \ETC \FILENAME. EXTENSION
It's nothing more than an unusual way of typing an address.
There are a few simple rules you need to follow, though.
All drives on a normal stand-alone PC are referenced by one
letter, followed by a colon and a backslash (\). All directories
between the top of the drive and the file you want to access must
be included in the path and typed exactly as they are spelled.
Directories and files have a maximum of eight characters,
followed by a dot and up to three more characters. The dot and
the extra three characters, called an extension, are optional.
Most files use the extension; most directories do not.
There's no way around it...you have to know these rules.
You can't type your address as Anytown 64, terry 12002 doe, USA,
Proudfoot Suite 106 Lane and expect your mail to be delivered
properly, and you can't mix up path syntax on your computer and
expect to find the file or directory you want.
Two types of paths? Not really...but...
A path is a path, but the water has been muddied a lot over the
years. Sometimes you'll hear something referred to as a partial
path or a directory path and other times you'll hear of full
path. In the example we just used, C:\WINDOWS\SYSTEM is the
directory path because all it does is point to the directory, or
street if you prefer, where the file is located, not the full
address of the file itself. Full paths also include the name of
the file.
Can you handle a little bit more mud? There are also two
ways to type directory paths: with and without the final
backslash. And the worst part about it is that you never know
whether you were supposed to type the last backslash until the
program tells you whether or not you've made an error. If you
want to play it safe, don't use any trailing backslash when
typing paths to directories where you want to hunt for files.
Just type the name of the directory and leave it, like so:
C:\WINDOWS\SYSTEM
Can you handle a bit more mud? Here's where DOS plays a
really rotten trick on all of us. If you were looking for a file
called SYSTEM in your WINDOWS directory, you'd type it exactly
the same way as you would type it to look for the directory
called SYSTEM!
Believe it or not, this particular feature of DOS was actually
intended to make it easier to use.
What are zip and archive files?
Archive files are data files which have been specially processed
for long-term storage or transmission. Archives are created
either by joining a large group of files together into one single
file which can be split up later, or by shrinking one or more
files using special software so that they take up less space on a
disk or require less time to transmit over a network or telephone
line.
ZIP files are compressed archive files created with a
particular program designed for the job. This program is usually
called PKZIP.EXE, but there are other programs which can do the
same type of job in Windows much more easily, such as StuffIt
Expander and Winzip.
How compressed archives work
Archive compression programs shrink files before joining them so
the archive file will use less space than the original. It's
like a form of digital trash compacting. But unlike a real trash
compactor, compression software used for archiving can uncompress
the original data to its original, usable state whenever you want
to use it.
Compressing files for archive purposes takes time, but it
saves disk space. It has become less of a concern since disk
storage has gotten so inexpensive, but it is still important in
areas when time and data transmission speed are uncomfortably
slow. This is why almost every piece of new software you get
from the Internet, including the graphics which make up Web pages
such as this one, are transferred to your computer in compressed
form.
If you'd like to learn more about how data can be reduced in size
and restored to its original form without loss or change, click
here to browse a much more detailed guide to data compression
wizardry located elsewhere in the PC Owner's Survival Guide.
What is meant by install, uninstall, setup, and configure?
Think of it this way. You install your new VCR by putting it on
the right shelf. You set it up by connecting the cables. You
configure it by programming the remote control.
With software, installation is the process of putting the
files that come in a particular software package in their proper
locations on your hard disk. Depending on the package, you may
have had to install it from floppy to hard disk, and then install
it a second time to its proper destination directories.
Uninstallation is the same as removal. uninstalling refers
to removing the files and setup information for a software
package from your system.
Setup is the process of properly connecting the software to
your computer...linking it to the right printer port, the right
printer, the mouse or joystick, setting the menu type, choosing
which monitor to use, selecting the Windows or DOS version, video
card type, amount of memory needed, and arranging all of the
other basic operating features that might be required by the
program to work most effectively on your system. (By the way,
most programs will only require you to know about one or two of
these particular features.) Setup is also known as
initialization, so called because during this process the
software is figuring out what its initial settings will be before
getting its final customizing touches.
And customizing is what configuration is all about. It's where
you, the user, get to tailor the software to your tastes to
whatever degree the programmer has allowed. Common configuration
options include: warnings or no warnings for certain operations,
custom colors for different parts of the screen, sound or no
sound, window size, mouse cursor shape, and the overall look of
the program's window.
What's a prompt?
Prompts, in DOS and Windows, are your computer's way of
asking you What now? Newsmen use prompters to remind them of the
next part of the story they're reading when they don't have it
memorized. Teachers prompt students for answers by asking them
questions about the current topic to jog their memories.
DOS and Windows prompt you for responses in several ways.
Most of the better software makes it easy for you to tell when
you are being prompted, but not so the ordinary DOS prompt.
Prompts you'll recognize
If your computer hasn't been configured with a built-in menu
system, you'll see this every time you boot:
C:\_
It might also look like this:
C:\WINDOWS\_
...or even as complex this:
C:\GAMES\GOLF\PGA_TOUR\COURSES\MYCOURSE\BACKNINE\_
(The section on paths will tell you what this strange code
means.)
This is called the DOS prompt, but it is also known by users
as the C prompt (or the A or B prompt if it's a floppy disk
drive). Technically it's called a command prompt, because it's
DOS' way of prompting you to give it some sort of command. Many
people feel it would have been a lot more effective if it looked
something like this:
I'm ready in the C:\WINDOWS directory. Type your command on the
line below. If you need help, just type HELP. What now? _
(Unfortunately, it was Friday afternoon at 4:00 p.m. when
the research department brought this particular idea up at the
product development meeting...or so the story goes.)
All you really need to know about the DOS prompt is that
whenever you see it, you are probably not in a program. (Type
EXIT and press the Enter key if you want to find out for sure.
You might be "shelled out" to DOS by the program you were just
using.) Sometimes you will get DOS prompts from within programs
by accident if you press the wrong key, and you might think
you've quit your program when in fact you've simply run another
program -- the DOS shell called COMMAND.COM --from inside it.
What's a boot?
Boot is actually short for an ancient computer term (if any
computing term could truly be called ancient) called
bootstrapping. When a boot is happening, the computer or program
is running its own internal software -- pulling itself up by its
own bootstraps, so to speak -- to prepare itself to work for you.
Boot, in computer-ese, isn't a thing. It's an action.
Booting is the act of starting a program, a part of a program, or
your whole computer system. You can boot programs, hardware, or
procedures which are offered within individual programs.
Whenever you double-click a Program Manager icon, you're booting
a program. Whenever turn on your computer's power switch, you're
booting the hardware. Each of individual messages you see while
the computer goes through its boot process are readouts of how
parts of the software themselves are booting.
A little about system booting
System booting is an important term for every user. When you
boot your system, you are turning on the hardware and starting
the software. There are two ways to do this on most computers,
and they are known as cold booting and warm booting.
A cold boot starts with the power switch off, in other words
with the system's hardware cold. A warm boot is used to restart
a system which is already running. When you press the Reset
button on your computer's case (it's not a Power switch), you are
warm booting your system. You can also warm boot from the
keyboard by pressing the Ctrl, Alt and Delete keys all at the
same time (also known, not very affectionately, as the
"three-fingered salute"). This restarts most of the internal
software without turning off the fan, the power supply, the
central processor chip (CPU) or hard disk, and it's a much faster
process than cold booting.
A cold boot requires you to turn your computer's power switch off
and turn it back on again. Most modern computers don't need to
be left off for several seconds as many oldtimers suggest except
when you're cleaning up a virus infection. You may have heard
that you can also perform a cold boot from the keyboard by
pressing Ctrl+Alt+Delete plus the Shift key, but this will not
usually clear out bad data in things like modems and sound cards.
You have to completely power down to reset those components.
If it helps, think of it this way. Powering down your
computer completely to restart it is like giving it a cruel, cold
boot to the backside. Pressing the less violent Reset switch is
like a more forgiving, warm boot to the behind.
Just a reminder: if you ever have your computer crash while
you're online with your provider, all the warmth in the world
probably won't reset your modem.
What is a modem?
Modem, strictly speaking, stands for MOdulator DEModulator.
Unless you have a direct Internet connection through a digital
phone line or cable connection, a modem is the device either
attached to the outside of your computer or mounted inside of it
which connects your computer to the telephone system and
ultimately to your Internet provider.
Almost everything that happens inside your computer is a
series of 1's or 0's being moved from place to place to
accomplish various tasks. Phone lines don't take well to binary
information, but right now they're the best means we have of
connecting with Internet providers.
Modems were developed as a means of converting digital
computer data into an audio signal that can be sent through a
telephone line. You've probably heard the sound created by your
modem; it sounds a little like radio static. What the modem does
is encoded the 0's and 1's that make up all computer information
into a MOdulated audio signal. The modem at the other end of the
line DEModulates the signal and DEModulates it back into its
original binary form.
Modems use the same basic principle used to carry music over
radio waves. You might recall that AM stands for Amplitude
Modulation and FM for Frequency Modulation.
Modem trivia...
Modems will probably be all but obsolete in the next five years
as telephone and cable systems rewire themselves for digital
transmission. In the meantime, they are the best means we have
of getting Internet and other online services into in our homes.
The fastest modems in common use are almost one-tenth as
slow as the digital phone lines available in areas where the
phone company has the hardware installed. The reason they're so
much slower is that the phone system is designed to handle a
narrow frequency range. All the trebles and basses are cut out
of your phone signal. Basses interfere with signals on other
lines, and trebles are too fragile and require too much technical
precision to be transmitted reliably. If telephone lines had the
kind of frequency response you hear on a reasonably good stereo,
we might all be using 100kbaud modems by now instead of the 14.4
and 28.8kbaud modems which are the current market standard.
If that's not fast enough, some of the better-equipped
Internet providers have a surprise for you later this year...128k
ISDN grade modems which will operate right through your phone
line. It might make choosing between cable Internet, when it
comes, and Internet through your phone lines a tough decision.
What is UNIX?
Here's the straight scoop on UNIX from The Jargon File:UNIX:
/yoo'niks/ [In the authors' words, A weak pun on Multics] n.
(also `Unix') An interactive time-sharing system invented in 1969
by Ken Thompson after Bell Labs left the Multics project,
originally so he could play games on his scavenged PDP-7 (a very
old model of computer). Dennis Ritchie, the inventor of C (a
programming language), is considered a co-author of the operating
system. The turning point in UNIX' history came when it was
reimplemented (meaning rewritten or re-coded) almost entirely in
C during 1972 to 1974, making it the first source-portable OS.
(Source stands for source code, which is the basic text
information used to create almost all computer programs from
scratch.) UNIX subsequently underwent mutations and expansions at
the hands of many different people, resulting in a uniquely
flexible and developer-friendly environment. By 1991, UNIX had
become the most widely used multi-user general-purpose operating
system in the world. (DOS is a single-user operating system.)
Many people consider this the most important victory yet of
hackerdom over industry opposition.
They explained it better than we could. The only thing we might
add to this explanation is that most Internet service providers
of note in North America use UNIX, or a variation of it, as the
operating system on their host computers. One of the most
popular is Linux, a free (no kidding) "clone" of UNIX originally
developed and still maintained by Linus Torvalds which is in use
around the world and designed specifically for use on
IBM-compatibles.
What is a BBS (Bulletin Board System)?
Strictly speaking, a BBS is any central computer designed for
exchanging information between users. It's not the same as a
server because it is meant more for interactive exchange of
information than for use as a fixed, unchanging database.
Practically speaking, BBS' are the most basic level of
online service. They are usually dialup services which you
access with a modem and an ordinary terminal program. Once you
are connected you can send and receive messages with other users
and exchange text and non-text data without having to connect
one-on-one. BBS' generally offer the same features as the
Internet but on a much smaller scale.
Where the online adventure began
Over 100,000 little online services
BBSing joins the Internet
Where the online adventure began
For most online veterans, BBS' was where their adventure began.
Long before there were inexpensive dialup Internet services, or
even online services such as GEnie, CompuServe and America
Online, there were thousands of companies and private computer
owners who offered their computers for public or invitation-only
access using a modem. Most corporate and hobby BBS' were open 23
hours a day (the other hour was reserved for system maintenance
and for retrieving inter-BBS mail) year-round, and offered their
services either free of charge to all or at a nominal fee which
was used to pay for the hardware and telephone bills.
BBS' remain popular alternatives to online services for many
reasons. Besides the obvious reason (most are free if you have a
modem and a local telephone line), they are usually highly
specialized and offer a volume and quality of information and
discussion on certain subjects that can't be equaled by
commercial online services. A local bulletin board devoted to
automotive hobbyists, for example, might contain several times
the total amount of information available on automotive topics
from even the largest online service. This occurs because the
owner/operator and the users of the board dedicate their efforts
to collecting and sharing information on just this topic.
Over 100,000 little online services
How popular are BBS'? According to some estimates, there have
been at least 100,000 public and private BBS' in continuous
operation North America for several years now, and probably many
more than that. It's safe to say that at least a million
bulletin boards have come and gone over the past decade. You
name it, from brownie recipes to accountants who deal exclusively
with the medical community, either there is or was at one time a
BBS devoted to that specific subject.
BBSing joins the Internet
BBSing has been a culture unto itself for many years with its own
codes of conduct, language and traditions. But the BBS scene is
changing rapidly. It is now possible to open up BBS' to low-cost
TELNET connections via the Internet, many of the most popular
BBS' are going international where before they were once almost
exclusively local.
Making a board available for TELNET access costs money for
the operators, and telephone rates even for hobby boards have
skyrocketed in recent years since phone companies began charging
a higher rate for BBS line rental. More and more BBS' are asking
for donations before they allow you to access the more
interesting areas of their boards.
These fees are often well worth the investment. Increasing
exposure via the Internet for BBS' devoted to unusual subjects
can only result in an improvement in the variety and quality of
the information they offer.
What are viruses and trojan horses?
There are few more misunderstood subjects in computing than
viruses and trojans. Let's clear this up once and for all.
A computer virus is program code which is created for the
purpose of spreading itself. Viruses don't have to be
destructive to data or hardware. All they have to do is spread.
A virus could be as simple as the many joke viruses which have
been circulated, which do nothing more than pop up on your screen
for a few seconds, say something like:
HAHAHA! Gotcha!
This virus was created by the Parting Shot Group.
BOYCOTT PANTS!
...and then disappear forever, without doing a trace of damage to
anything but your nerves.
Some viruses, such as the dreaded Michelangelo, can erase every
bit of useful data you have in the time it takes to boot your
computer. And unless you have antivirus software to detect the
problem, you won't know what until it's too late.
Continue to the next topic to learn about trojan horses
What is a trojan horse?
A trojan horse is a program which carries data designed to
operate without the user's knowledge. Remember the original
trojan horse, the Greeks' gift to the King of Troy which carried
soldiers sent to destroy the city? A trojan might be just as
harmless as the example shown above, or so deadly that it can
actually damage your hardware and destroy your data.
Most trojans do not carry viruses and do not reproduce
themselves except when you copy or share the program containing
the destructive code. Trojans tend to be more common today than
viruses.
This button will take you to the superb Computer Virus Myths
document by Greenburg and Rosenberger, one of the all-time
classic ghostbuster articles on viruses and trojans.
This help button leads to the Virus Awareness Kit which will
tell you much more about what viruses and trojans are, how they
work, how safe you really are, and show you precisely what you
can do to protect yourself.
What is a hacker?
Hacking is usually defined as the process of finding out how
things work and what can be done with them. It is believed that
the term came into popular use with computers because learning to
use some of the earlier software and hardware often felt a lot
like hacking one's way through heavy underbrush with a machete.
It is generally agreed among veteran computer users that the
term hacker is more synonymous with daredevil, tinkerer or
explorer than prankster, vandal or spy. Right now, you are
hacking your way through Internet, so technically speaking that
makes you a hacker.
Hackers are not demons in human flesh whose only purpose in life
is to cause problems or other computer users. The correct term
for that type of user is cracker. The media has weighted its
coverage heavily on the side of destructive hackers and paid very
little attention to constructive hackers. This imbalance has
become so severe that the mere mention of the word hacker can
strike fear into the hearts of average people. But don't get
the idea that hackers are magicians who can be relied upon to
solve your computing problems on request. Most hackers have been
"free-advice'd" to death.
To put it another way, there are users and there are
hackers, and practically anyone getting involved with Internet at
this point in time can consider themselves to have more than a
little hacker blood in them.
What are SIGs?
Sig has two computing meanings, one specifically Internet-related
and the other related to computing in groups. This help button
will take you to the first definition which is located on a
different page.
SIG is an acronym that stands for Special Interest Group.
SIG is also spelled lower-case as sig, and the term is used to
describe any group of computer enthusiasts who gather to share
information about a common interest. That interest is usually
computer-related, but sigs can be formed for virtually any
purpose.
Message areas on bulletin boards and online systems are
often referred to as sigs when the messages are about specific
topics. Computer clubs often have many sigs to encourage the
various interests of its members. It's not uncommon for large
clubs to have more than a dozen, including sigs for programmers,
novices, gamers, Mac users, OS/2 users, graphics fans and
MIDI/music lovers. USENET newsgroups are also occasionally
referred to as sigs (many feel that this is not a correct usage
of the word) since they tend to focus on specific topics and
issues.
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