> THE GLOBAL AFRICAN COMMUNITY
>
> R E F E R E N C E N O T E S
>
> THE AFRICAN ORIGINS OF SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS:
> A NEW PARADIGM FOR SCIENTIFIC THINKING; AN ANNOTATED
> BIBLIOGRAPHY
>
> Developed by KAMAU BEYETE A. SADIKI
>
> Posted by RUNOKO RASHIDI
>
> DEDICATED TO DR. MAE C. JEMISON
>
> --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
>
> This annotated bibliography is a compilation of books,
> papers and articles that can provide some insight into
> the accomplishments of early Africans and
> African-Americans in science and mathematics. It can
> be utilized for research purposes or just to expand
> the general reader's consciousness on the subject
> matter. It is by no means exhaustive or all inclusive.
> It merely reflects some of the materials that I have
> utilized in my own research. --Kamau Beyete A. Sadiki
>
> --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
>
> 1. Blacks in Science: Ancient and Modern, ed. by Ivan
> Van Sertima, Transaction Books, New Brunswick, NJ,
> 1983
>
> A compilation of very thoroughly researched papers
> that documents Africa's contributions to astronomy,
> agriculture, architecture, engineering, aeronautics,
> mathematics, medicine, metallurgy, physics and writing
> systems. Also included in this text are articles
> detailing the African-American's contributions to
> science and invention. Some of the papers that are
> worth special mention are John Pappademos' "An Outline
> of Africa's Role in the History of Physics", Dr.
> Charles Finch's "The African Background of Medical
> Science", "Steel Making in Ancient Africa" by Debra
> Shore, "The Pyramids: Ancient Showcase of African
> Science and Technology" by Beatrice Lumpkin and John
> Henrik Clarke's "Lewis Latimer: Bringer of the Light".
>
>
> 2. Africa Counts, Claudia Zaslavsky, Prindle, Weber,
> and Schmidt, New Your, 1973
>
> This is a pioneering work that is well written and
> documented. It details the early African mathematical
> practices found almost throughout Africa. A must
> reading for those interested in the African origins of
> mathematics.
>
> 3. Stolen Legacy, George G. M. James, Julian
> Richardson Associates, San Francisco, 1976
>
> In this scholarly book, Professor James declares that
> Greek philosophy is a misnomer. He thoroughly
> documents the African origins of Grecian civilization
> and the study of Greek philosophers and mathematicians
> in Africa. Dr. James also puts forth an hypothesis
> based on the ancient Kemetic creation story as a
> metaphorical scientific explanation for the creation
> of the universe.
>
> 4. Journal of African Civilizations, Vol. 4, No. 1,
> ed. by Ivan VanSertima, Transaction Books, New
> Burnswick, NJ, 1982
>
> This special issue of the scholarly journal edited by
> Dr. Van Sertima deals exclusively with the African and
> African-American contributions to science and
> invention.
>
> 5. The African Origins of Civilization, Cheikh Anta
> Diop, Lawrence Hill Press, New York, 1974
>
> Here we have the most thorough documentation of the
> African ethnicity of the ancient people who developed
> the mathematics and sciences upon which modern
> civilization is based (Ethiopians, so-called
> Egyptians, Nubians, Sudanese, Colchis, etc.).
> Excellent documentation regarding the origins of the
> scholarship of Greek philosophers, i.e., Herodotus,
> Diodorus, Plato, Plutarch, et. al.
>
> 6. An Introduction to the History of Mathematics,
> Howard Eves, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York, 3rd
> ed., 1969; History of Mathematics, Arthur Gittleman,
> Charles E. Merrill Press, Columbus, Ohio, 1975.
>
> These two books are primarily devoted to the origin of
> mathematics in the ancient world, followed by
> subsequent European developments based upon these
> model: Kemetic number system, Ahmose (Rhind) Papyri,
> African surveyors, 3-4-5 triangle, truncated pyramid
> (seal of the US dollar bill), Kemetic algebra, etc.
>
> 7. The Pyramids, Ahmed Fakhry, University of Chicago
> Press, Chicago, IL, 1975
>
> This book not only describes the structure and
> dimensions of the three best known pyramids at Giza,
> but furnishes the same information in respect to at
> least a dozen others, including the Step Pyramid at
> Saqqara.
>
> 8. The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, Arnold Chase,
> National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1979
>
> A thorough analysis of one of the ancient mathematical
> journal left by African mathematicians. Originally
> known as the Ahmose Mathematician Papyrus (Ahmose
> being the author), it documents the use of geometry,
> trigonometry, algebra (aha), arithmetic progression,
> proportionality, volume and area calculations, etc.
>
> 9. Mathematics in the Time of the Pharaohs, Richard
> Gillings, Cambridge MIT Press, 1972
>
> Gillings thoroughly documents the extensive
> mathematical activity of the ancient Kemetic people.
> His work begins with the four basic arithmetic
> operations and continues with fractions, algebra,
> geometric and arithmetic progression, and finding
> areas and volumes of various geometric shapes.
>
> 10. Golden Legacy, Baylor Publishing Co. and Community
> Enterprise, Inc., Seattle, WA, 1983
>
> Golden Legacy is a series of illustrated Black history
> magazines written in a "comic book" type format. Short
> biographical stories are developed around great
> personalities in Black history. Several volumes deals
> with scientists and inventors. Excellent for
> kindergarten and early elementary lesson planning on
> African-American science and mathematics.
>
> 11. A Young Genius in Old Egypt, Beatrice Lumpkin,
> DuSable Museum Press, Chicago, 1979
>
> This is an excellent primer for early elementary
> school ages on the origins of mathematics. It tells
> the story of a young African growing up to become one
> of ancient Kemet's (Egypt's) greatest mathematicians.
> It is very well illustrated, also.
>
> 12. Seven Black American Scientists and Eight Black
> American Inventors, Robert Hayden, Addisonian Press,
> Reading, MA, 1970 & 1972, respectively; Black
> Inventors of America, McKinley Burt, Jr., National
> Book Co., Portland, OR, 1969
>
> Excellent biographies on the lives of Black American
> scientists and inventors are detailed in these works.
> Each of them can easily be used to develop lessons
> using the "Great Personality" approach as suggested by
> Dr. John Henrik Clarke. Professor Burt's book goes a
> step further and offers a still timely analysis of how
> some of these Black innovator's invention tremendously
> affected the American and, in some instances, world
> industrial complex.
>
> 13. The Physicians of Pharaonic Egypt, Paul
> Ghalioungui, Verlan Phillip Von Zabern, Mainz, West
> Germany, 1983
>
> In this work Dr. Ghaliougui provides us with a good
> look into the high level of development that was
> achieved by ancient African priest- physicians in the
> medical sciences. There were specialized physicians
> such as surgeons, veterinarians, therapists,
> pathologists, physicians of the eyes, stomach and
> teeth, etc. Dr. Ghaliougui also looks closely at the
> organization of the ancient medical profession and the
> personalities of some of the ancient
> priest-physicians.
>
> 14. A History of Science, George Sarton, Vol. 1,
> Harvard Press, Cambridge, MA, 1952
>
> Although this volume deals with the Hellenistic
> sciences, it is mentioned here because chapter two is
> a thoroughly written exposition of the sciences of
> ancient Kemet. A position is taken by Sarton that the
> supposedly scientific activity of the ancient Kemetic
> people was indeed scientific and the priest-scientist
> of that time laid the foundation for later Greek and
> Western science. "They were our first guides and our
> first teachers (in the sciences)", says Sarton.
>
> 15. "African Star Gazers: Why Doesn't Western Science
> Take Them Seriously?", Hunter H. Adams, III, Paper
> delivered at the 5th Annual Third World Conference,
> Chicago, IL, March, 1979
>
> In this paper Mr. Adams clearly articulates the
> fundamental differences between the development and
> practice of African science and what later develops as
> Western science. He utilized the Dogon people West
> Africa and their astronomical knowledge, particularly
> their knowledge about the Sirius star system, to
> exemplify the differences. To understand the
> differences in the development of scientific knowledge
> in African and the West, this paper is highly
> recommended.
>
> 16. The Dawn of Astronomy, N. Lockyer, MacMillan and
> Co., New York, 1894
>
> This is the most authoritative documentation on the
> advent of astronomy in Africa. Lockyer scholarly
> documents how the science of astronomy was an integral
> part of the ancient Kemetic people's lifeways, from
> religion to architecture.
>
> 17. Secrets of the Great Pyramid, Peter Tompkins,
> Harper & Row, New York, 1971
>
> An intriguing but well documented look at the early
> scientific and mathematical investigations in the
> Great Pyramid of Khufu. An excellent and detailed
> description of the mathematics, astronomy, geodesics,
> and mensuration techniques developed form the
> configurations of the Great Pyramid. Tompkins
> emphatically states that the builders knew the precise
> circumference of the earth, the mean length of the
> earth's orbit, the value po pi and phi (know as the
> Golden Section during the recent "Age of
> Enlightenment" in Europe), the acceleration of
> Gravity, the speed of light, trigonometric values, and
> a host of other mathematical and scientific facts. He
> also offers evidence that such great Greek
> mathematicians and philosophers as Plato, Pythagoras,
> Solon, Thales, Diodorus, Herodotus, and others named
> Kemet as the birthplace of geometry, and the place in
> which many Greeks went to study.
>
> 18. Mathematics in the Making, Lancelot Hogben,
> Doubleday & Co., New York, 1960
>
> This is an omnibus volume providing a thorough survey
> of developments in all areas of mathematics from
> Dynastic Kemet of the times of Newton and Gauss. Many
> illustrations and diagrams in color that lends
> themselves to lesson plans and class projects.
>
> 19. Africa: Mother of Western Civilizations, Yosef A.
> A. ben-Jochannan, Alkebu-lan Books, New York, 1971
>
> 20. The Healing Hand: Man and Wound in the Ancient
> World, Guido Majno, Harvard University Press,
> Cambridge, MA, 1975
>
> 21. The Edwin Smith Medical Papyrus, James Breasted,
> University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1931
>
> An in-depth analysis of what is probably the most
> detailed medical book written by ancient Africans. It
> has an illustration of a cross-section of the head
> with sections of the brain identified in Mdw Ntr
> (so-called hieroglyphics).
>
> 22. The House of Life (Per Ankh): Magic and Medical
> Science in Ancient Egypt, Paul Ghalioungui, B. M.
> Israel Press, Amsterdam, 1973
>
> This text is a well written treatise on the medical
> profession in ancient Kemet. It documents the ancient
> African sacerdotal medical activity in such fields as
> surgery, physiopathology, gynecology, obstetrics
> pharmacology, ophthalmology, and dentistry.
> Ghalioungui also deals with the application "magic" in
> the healing arts of ancient Kemet.
>
> 23. The Mechanical Triumph of the Ancient Egyptians,
> F. Barber, Kegan, Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Ltd,
> London, 1900
>
> This is a good early attempt to explain the
> engineering and mechanical achievements of the ancient
> Kemetic engineers without the use of some simple
> machines.
>
> 24. Destruction of Black Civilization, Chancellor
> Williams, Third World Press, Chicago, 1974
>
> Dr. Williams offers the reader an explanation of the
> often neglected aspect of African history. i.e., how
> African civilizations were destroyed by hostile forces
> from Europe and Asia. He goes further and offers a
> plan on ho to reverse the harmful effects of the
> destruction of African civilization.
>
> 25. The African Presence in Ancient America: They Came
> Before Columbus, Ivan VanSertima, Random House, New
> York, 1976
>
> In this book Dr. VanSertima draws upon his mastery of
> several academic disciplines to demonstrate that
> African made successful voyages to the American
> continent before Columbus. He further proves that the
> earliest civilization in America was influenced by
> these African visitors perhaps as early as 1000 B.C.
> (See also Before Columbus by Dr. Samuel D. Marble, A.
> S. Barnes & Co., New York, 1980; The Black Discovery
> of America by Michael Bradley, Personal Library
> Publishers, Toronto, Canada, 1981; and African and the
> Discovery of America by Leo Wiener, Innes and Sons,
> Philadelphia, 1920).
>
> 26. Scared Science: The King of Pharaonic Theocracy,
> R. A. Schwaller deLubicz, Inner Traditions
> International, New York, 1982
>
> 27. The Time Falling Bodies Take to Light: Mythology,
> Sexuality and the Origins of Culture, William I.
> Thompson, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1981.
>
> 28. Black Man of the Nile and His Family, Yosef A. A.
> ben-Jochannan, Alkebulan Books, New York, 1981
>
> Dr. ben-Jochannan draws upon his varied experiences,
> talents and academic training to bring the reader a
> monumental work that shows convincingly that the
> original Kemetic people (so-called Egyptians) were
> Black people. He employs a multi-disciplinary approach
> that can leave no doubt in the mind of honest readers
> that the Nile Valley is the original home of African
> civilization.
>
> 29. World's Greatest Men of Color, Joel A. Rogers,
> Vols. I & II, MacMillan Press, New York, 1973
>
> J. A. Rogers brilliantly recounts the individual
> achievements of African men and women around the
> world. Each biography is supported by a complete
> bibliography. This is a rare work that demonstrates
> that Africans have participated in all of the major
> cultures of the world.
>
> 30. Africa's Gift to America, Joel A. Rogers, Helga M.
> Rogers (publisher), New York, 1961
>
> This is an easy to read introduction to great African
> Achievements form the African continent to America.
> Mr. Rogers offers complete references throughout the
> book.
>
> 31. Wretched of the Earth, Franz Fanon, Grove Press,
> New York, 1968
>
> The author, a revolutionary and brilliant
> psycho-analyst, expertly explores the harmful aspects
> of colonization from the perspective of the colonized.
> This work has universal applications for all oppressed
> people in their struggles against foreign domination.
>
> 32. Introduction to African Civilizations, John G.
> Jackson, University Press, New York, 1970
>
> With painstaking objectivity, and brilliant
> scholarship, Prof. Jackson obliterates the picture of
> African being backward and contributing nothing of
> significance to the evolution of civilization. This
> work challenges all of the standard approaches to
> African history and provides new insights into the
> subject that clearly show the development of
> civilization in Africa. Mr. Jackson provides the
> reader with an abundance of documentation and
> references that corroborates the contention of an
> African origin of civilization.
>
> 33. Early Hydraulic Civilization in Egypt: A Study in
> Cultural Ecology, Karl Butzer, University of Chicago
> Press, Chicago, 1976
>
> Butzer has produced an excellent primer on the early
> hydraulic culture of Nile Valley civilization. It is
> revealing in that show some of the sophisticated
> hydraulic techniques used by ancient Africans in the
> Nile Valley which propel them into civilized
> societies.
>
> 34. Selections from the Husia: The Sacred Wisdom of
> Ancient Egypt, Maulana Karenga, Kawaida Publications,
> Los Angeles, 1984
>
> Dr. Karenga meaningfully selected and beautifully
> retranslated several books ancient scared literature
> that clearly illustrates the high moral and ethical
> lifeways of the ancient Kemetic people. The Husia also
> provides literary insights into Kemetic pedagogy,
> religion, philosophy, and human behavior. A must
> reading for any student who seeks a rich and clear
> understanding of Kemetic literature and lifeways.
>
> 35. The Sirius Mystery, Robert K. G. Temple, St.
> Martin's Press, New York, 1976
>
> Robert Temple attempts to shed some light on the
> extraordinary astronomical knowledge of the Dogon
> people of Mali, West Africa. The binary star system
> called Sirius A and B is central to the Dogon lifeway.
> After doing meticulous research on the Sirius
> question, Temple implies that the Dogon was instructed
> in their wisdom by extra- terrestrial visitors from
> outer space.
>
> 36. The Pyramids: An Enigma Solved, Joseph Davidovits
> and Margie Morris, Hippocrene Books, New York, 1988
>
> Davidovits and Morris puts forth yet another theory on
> the construction of the pyramids. It provides new
> insights into the question because old data is not
> rehashed. Their thesis is that the stones used as
> building material is a cement aggregate that were
> casted in place and not quarried blocks of limestone
> as most pyramid construction theorist suggest. The
> critical piece of data for their thesis is the
> so-called Famine Stele found on the Shele Island that,
> according toe Davidovits' translation, has the
> alchemical process for producing the aggregate.
>
> 37. The Legacy of Egypt, S. R. K. Glanville, Oxford
> University Press, 1942
>
> This is a compilation of several articles that discuss
> ancient Kemetic contributions from the calendar to
> modern Islam and Christianity. There are three
> excellent papers on mechanical and technical
> processes, materials, science, and medicine. Good
> primers on ancient Kemetic scientific achievements.
>
> 38. Egyptian Sacred Science in Islam, Rafiq Bilal &
> Thomas Goodwin, Bennu Publishers, San Francisco, 1985
>
> Bilal and Goodwin are two young African-American
> scholars that are carrying on the tradition of cutting
> edge research among African scholars concerning
> ancient Kemet's impact on the major religions of
> today. This work documents the parallels in Kemetic
> lifeways and the Islamic religion. They also proposes
> an interesting hypothesis about the ancient Kemetic
> symbol for like, the Ankh, being a symbol of the
> phenomena in nature known as the Hydrologic Cycle.
>
> 39. "Maat: The African Universe", Jacob Carruthers,
> Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 1, No. 1, San Francisco
> State University Black Studies Dept. San Francisco,
> 1982
>
> Maat, in its simplest definition, is defined as truth,
> justice and righteousness. It was the supreme ethical
> paradigm which dictated the behavior of ancient
> Kemetic people and priest-scientist. In this article
> Dr. Carruthers explains the universality of the
> concept of Maat and how ethical behavior was a norm in
> Kemetic society.
>
> 40. Egyptian Mysteries: New Light on Ancient Spiritual
> Knowledge, Lucy Lamy, Crossroads Books, New York, 1981
>
>
> Lamy studied very closely with the French Egyptologist
> Schwaller deLubiz at the Temple of Ipet Isut, in
> present day Luxor. This book provides a good
> interpretation of the transphysical aspects of the
> lifeways of ancient Kemetic people. With the exoterica
> removed, it also reveals a certain degree of
> scientific thinking that would be other wise obscure.
> A good reference in understanding the
> scientific-spiritual relationship in ancient Kemet.
>
> 41. Islamic Science: An Illustrated Study, Seyyed H.
> Nasr, Westerham Press, 1976
>
> 42. Le Temple de L'Homme (The Temple in Man), R. A.
> Schwaller deLubiz, Tome 1, Vol. 1, Apet Du Sud a
> Lougsor, Caracteres 3, rue Haute Feuille, Paris 6,
> 1957 ( 1977 condensed translation available from Inner
> Traditions International, New York)
>
> 43. Symbol and the Symbolic: Ancient Egypt Science and
> the Evolution of Consciousness, R. A. Schwaller
> deLubicz, Inner Traditions International, New York,
> 1978 (Condensed translation of original volume
> published in France in 1949 entitled Symbol et
> Symbolique).
>
> 44. "The Shabaka Text (Memphite Theology)", Chapter
> VIII in Stolen Legacy by George G. M. James (#3 of
> bibliography). See Also The Dawn of Conscience, James
> H Breasted, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1933,
> pages 29-42; and Ancient Egyptian Literature, Miriam
> Lichtheim, Vol. 1, University of California Press,
> Berkeley, 1973, pages 51-57
>
> The Shabaka Text, known in European Egyptological
> circles as the Memphite Theology, is one of several
> ancient Kemetic texts that deal with the creation of
> the universe. George G. M. James contents that it can
> very well be a scientific thesis that explains the
> cosmology and physics at the first moment of creation
> and at incremental times thereafter. In light of
> insights being revealed by research in quantum
> mechanics and nonlinear sciences, The Shabaka Text and
> other ancient Kemetic creation text needs to be given
> renewed attention for their scientific detail.
>
> 45. The Afrocentric Idea, Molefi Kete Asante, Temple
> University Press, Philadelphia, 1987
>
> Dr. Asante brilliantly asserts the need for an
> Afrocentric paradigm that accurately articulates the
> experiences and life-ways of people of African
> descent. Furthermore, he maintains that this paradigm
> can only be developed by African scholars. He exposes
> the inadequacies of logic based Western scientific
> discoveries in their attempt to understand African
> cultural data. A must-read for those interested in a
> more intelligent context in which to understand
> African cultural dynamics.
>
> 46. Toward A Science of Consciousness, Kenneth R
> Pelletier, Celestial Arts, Berkeley, CA, 1985
>
> 47. Turbulent Mirror, John Briggs & F. David Peat,
> Harper & Row, New York, 1989
>
> This text is the best published thus far that uses
> easily understandable metaphors to explain the "new"
> science of complexity, chaos and non- linearity. It
> offers some insights into how ancient African priest-
> scientist understood the universe as one and all
> phenomena within it as being inter-related. It also
> corroborates the ancient understanding that reality is
> infinite.
>
> 48. "African Consciousness and the Liberation
> Struggle: Implications for the Development and
> Construction of Scientific Paradigms", Wade Nobles,
> privately published paper, Oakland, CA, 1978
>
> A very bold and courageous paper that attempts to
> articulate an African perspective on scientific
> inquiry. It offers an African-centered definition for
> science and formulates a scientific paradigm that is
> founded on the collective African experience.
>
> 49. Black Pioneers of Science & Invention, Louis
> Haber, Harcourts, Brace, & World, Inc., New York, 1970
>
>
> This is another good publication that documents the
> creative genius and inventiveness of early
> African-American scientists and engineers. (See
> reference #12 for other sources on this subject)
>
> 50. "The Scar on the African's Arm", Hippocrates
> (magazine), March/ April 1989 issue
>
> This article provides insights on the African origins
> of the immunization process for smallpox. Most western
> sources wrongly credits a Dr. Mather for the process
> but an African by the name of Onesimus revealed the
> secret of the process to him.
>
> 51. "From Celestial Flow to Terrestrial Flow: Ancient
> Hydraulic Developments in the Nile Valley", Kamau
> Beyete A. Sadiki, paper delivered at the Third Annual
> Conference of the Association for the Study of
> Classical African Civilizations, City College of New
> York, Harlem, NY, March, 1986
>
> This paper details the origin and evolution of
> hydraulics system in the Nile Valley. It also shows
> how these hydraulic systems were developed in harmony
> with the annual inundation of the Nile and how the
> scientific thinking of ancient African scientists
> dealt with both physical and transphysical phenomena,
> synthesizing intuitive and analytical processes,
> simultaneously.
>
> 52. "The Peopling of Ancient Egypt", Chiekh Anta Diop,
> published paper in The General History of Africa:
> Ancient Civilizations, Vol. II, edit by K. Moktar,
> United Nation's Educational, Scientific and Cultural
> Organization (UNESCO), Paris, France, 1976.
>
> This paper by Dr. Chiekh Anta Diop, author of The
> African Origins of Civilization, was delivered at the
> Cairo Symposium in Cairo, Egypt in 1974. Dr. Diop
> provided extensive linguistic, anthropological, and
> other scientific data that demonstrated the ethnic
> origins of the so- called ancient Egyptian people was
> from the south. His research along with that of Dr.
> Theophile Obenga was so thorough that the other
> scholars in attendance was not able to provide an
> adequate response to their thesis. This paper is one
> of the definitive, if not the most definitive, work on
> the question of the origins of the so-called ancient
> Egyptians.
>
> 53. The Dreams of Reason: The Computer and the Rise of
> Complexity, Heinz Pagels, Simon & Schuster, New York,
> 1988
>
> An excellent layperson's resource on the recent
> emergence of the science of complexity and chaos. Well
> written by a respected physicist who uses good prose
> and metaphor to explain complexity and it's
> implication on how we view the universe.
>
> 54. Black Athena, Martin Bernal, Rutgers University
> Press, Rutgers, New Jersey, 1988
>
> This text is a very scholarly attempt to continue the
> in-depth study of the thesis proposed by George G. M.
> James, Yosef ben-Jochannan and others. Bernal argues
> for an overthrow of the old historical paradigms he
> calls the "Ancient Model" and "Aryan Model" and
> replace them with his "Revised Ancient Model". The
> Revised Ancient Model discredits the Aryan Model as
> pure fabrication motivated by racism during the 17th
> through 19th centuries and proposes a new paradigm for
> historiography that show the tremendous "afroasiatic"
> influences on civilization.
>
> 55. Fascinating Fibonaccis: Mystery of Magic in
> Numbers, Trudi H. Garland, Dale Seymour Publications,
> 1987
>
> This is an excellent reference for a lesson plan on
> the natural functions of mathematics. It gives a good
> overview of the so-called Fibonacci numbers. Most
> importantly, It documents the fact that ancient
> African mathematicians was cognizant of the
> transcendental function, know by the Greek letter phi,
> which equals 1.618.... It was called the golden ratio
> in Europe during its emergence from the Dark Ages.
>
> 56. American Black Scientists and Inventors, ed. by
> Edward Jenkins, National Science Teachers Association,
> Washington, D. C., 1975
>
> 57. At Last Recognition: A Reference Handbook of
> Unknown Black Inventors and Their Contributions to
> America, James C. Wiliiams, B. C. A. Publishing
> Company, Chicago, IL, 1978
>
> 58. Banneker, The Afro-American Astronomer, ed. by
> Will W. Allen, Books for Libraries, Freeport, NY, 1969
>
>
> 59. Benjamin Banneker: Genius of Early America, Lillie
> Patterson, Abingdon, Nashville, TN, 1978
>
> 60. Black Apollo of Science: The Life of Ernest
> Everett Just, Kenneth R. Manning, Oxford Press, New
> York, 1983
>
> 61. Black Giants in Science, Paul J. Driver, VAntage
> Books, New York, 1973
>
> 62. Blacks in Science: Astrophysicist to Zoologist,
> Hattie Carwell, Exposition Books, Hicksville, NY, 1987
>
>
> 63. Black Mathematicians and Their Work, Virginia
> Newell, Dorrance and Company, Ardmore, PA, 1980
>
> 64. Dr. George Washington Carver, Scientist, Shirley
> Graham & George D. Lipscomb, WAshington Square Press,
> New York
>
> 65. George Washington Carver: The Story of A Great
> American, Ann Terry White, E. M. Hale, Eau Claire, WI,
> 1953
>
> 66. Life of Benjamin Banneker, Silvio A. Bendini,
> Little Brown Books, New York, 1954
>
> 67. Many Shades of Black, Stanton L. Wormley, and
> Lewis H. Fenderson, ed., Morrow Publishing Co., New
> York, 1969
>
> 68. The Negro In Science, Julius Taylor, ed., Morgan
> College Press, Baltimore, MD, 1955
>
> 69. "The Negro Benjamin Banneker, Astronomer and
> Mathematician, Plea for Universal Peace", by Phillip
> LePhillips, Records of the Columbian Historical
> Society, Vol. 20, Columbia, MD, pg 114-120
>
> 70. Negros Who Helped Build America, Madeline
> Stratton, Ginn & Co., Lexington, MA, 1965
>
> 71. Pocketful of Goobers: A Story About George
> Washington Carver, Barbara Mitchell, Carolrhoda Press,
> Minneapolis, MN, 1968
>
> 72. Shortchanged by History: America's Neglected
> Innovators, by Vernon Pizer, Putnam Books, New York,
> 1978
>
> 73. The Story of George Washington Carver, Arna
> Sontemps, Grosset & Dunlap, New York, 1954
>
> 74. They Showed the Way, Charlemae Rollins, Crowell
> Press, New York, 1964.
>
> --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
>
> Kamau Beyete A. Sadiki is a Hydropower Engineer, a
> Science & Mathematics Education Consultant,
> Co-Founder, Sirius Study Group, Western Region, ASCAC
>
> --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
>
> _________________________________________________________________
> >
>
>
>

¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤
To unsubscribe/subscribe or view archives of postings, go to the Gambia-L Web interface
at: http://maelstrom.stjohns.edu/archives/gambia-l.html

To Search in the Gambia-L archives, go to: http://maelstrom.stjohns.edu/CGI/wa.exe?S1=gambia-l
To contact the List Management, please send an e-mail to:
[log in to unmask]
¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤