The Place of Tasawwuf in Traditional Islam 

© Nuh Ha Mim Keller 

Perhaps the biggest challenge in learning Islam correctly today is the scarcity of traditional 'ulama. In this meaning, Bukhari relates the sahih, rigorously authenticated hadith that the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) said,  

"Truly, Allah does not remove Sacred Knowedge by taking it out of servants, but rather by taking back the souls of Islamic scholars [in death], until, when He has not left a single scholar, the people take the ignorant as leaders, who are asked for and who give Islamic legal opinion without knowledge, misguided and misguiding" (Fath al-Bari, 1.194, hadith 100). 

The process described by the hadith is not yet completed, but has certainly begun, and in our times, the lack of traditional scholars-whether in Islamic law, in hadith, in tafsir 'Koranic exegesis'-has given rise to an understanding of the religion that is far from scholarly, and sometimes far from the truth. For example, in the course of my own studies in Islamic law, my first impression from orientalist and Muslim-reformer literature, was that the Imams of the madhhabs or 'schools of jurisprudence' had brought a set of rules from completely outside the Islamic tradition and somehow imposed them upon the Muslims. But when I sat with traditional scholars in the Middle East and asked them about the details, I came away with a different point of view, having learned the bases for deriving the law from the Koran and sunna.  

And similarly with Tasawwuf-which is the word I will use tonight for the English Sufism, since our context is traditional Islam-quite a different picture emerged from talking with scholars of Tasawwuf than what I had been exposed to in the West. My talk tonight, In Sha' Allah, will present knowledge taken from the Koran and sahih hadith, and from actual teachers of Tasawwuf in Syria and Jordan, in view of the need for all of us to get beyond clichés, the need for factual information from Islamic sources, the need to answer such questions as: Where did Tasawwuf come from? What role does it play in the din or religion of Islam? and most importantly, What is the command of Allah about it?  

As for the origin of the term Tasawwuf, like many other Islamic discliplines, its name was not known to the first generation of Muslims. The historian Ibn Khaldun notes in his Muqaddima:  

This knowledge is a branch of the sciences of Sacred Law that originated within the Umma. From the first, the way of such people had also been considered the path of truth and guidance by the early Muslim community and its notables, of the Companions of the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace), those who were taught by them, and those who came after them.  

It basically consists of dedication to worship, total dedication to Allah Most High, disregard for the finery and ornament of the world, abstinence from the pleasure, wealth, and prestige sought by most men, and retiring from others to worship alone. This was the general rule among the Companions of the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) and the early Muslims, but when involvement in this-worldly things became widespread from the second Islamic century onwards and people became absorbed in worldliness, those devoted to worship came to be called Sufiyya or People of Tasawwuf (Ibn Khaldun, al-Muqaddima [N.d. Reprint. Mecca: Dar al-Baz, 1397/1978], 467). 

In Ibn Khaldun's words, the content of Tasawwuf, "total dedication to Allah Most High," was, "the general rule among the Companions of the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) and the early Muslims." So if the word did not exist in earliest times, we should not forget that this is also the case with many other Islamic disciplines, such as tafsir, 'Koranic exegesis,' or 'ilm al-jarh wa ta'dil, 'the science of the positive and negative factors that affect hadith narrators acceptability,' or 'ilm al-tawhid, the science of belief in Islamic tenets of faith,' all of which proved to be of the utmost importance to the correct preservation and transmission of the religion. 

As for the origin of the word Tasawwuf, it may well be from Sufi, the person who does Tasawwuf, which seems to be etymologically prior to it, for the earliest mention of either term was by Hasan al-Basri who died 110 years after the Hijra, and is reported to have said, "I saw a Sufi circumambulating the Kaaba, and offered him a dirham, but he would not accept it." It therefore seems better to understand Tasawwuf by first asking what a Sufi is; and perhaps the best definition of both the Sufi and his way, certainly one of the most frequently quoted by masters of the discipline, is from the sunna of the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) who said: 

Allah Most High says: "He who is hostile to a friend of Mine I declare war against. My slave approaches Me with nothing more beloved to Me than what I have made obligatory upon him, and My slave keeps drawing nearer to Me with voluntary works until I love him. And when I love him, I am his hearing with which he hears, his sight with which he sees, his hand with which he seizes, and his foot with which he walks. If he asks me, I will surely give to him, and if he seeks refuge in Me, I will surely protect him" (Fath al-Bari, 11.340-41, hadith 6502); 

This hadith was related by Imam Bukhari, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, al-Bayhaqi, and others with multiple contiguous chains of transmission, and is sahih. It discloses the central reality of Tasawwuf, which is precisely change, while describing the path to this change, in conformity with a traditional definition used by masters in the Middle East, who define a Sufi as Faqihun 'amila bi 'ilmihi fa awrathahu Llahu 'ilma ma lam ya'lam,'A man of religious learning who applied what he knew, so Allah bequeathed him knowledge of what he did not know.' 

To clarify, a Sufi is a man of religious learning,because the hadith says, "My slave approaches Me with nothing more beloved to Me than what I have made obligatory upon him," and only through learning can the Sufi know the command of Allah, or what has been made obligatory for him. He has applied what he knew, because the hadith says he not only approaches Allah with the obligatory, but "keeps drawing nearer to Me with voluntary works until I love him." And in turn, Allah bequeathed him knowledge of what he did not know, because the hadith says, "And when I love him, I am his hearing with which he hears, his sight with which he sees, his hand with which he seizes, and his foot with which he walks," which is a metaphor for the consummate awareness of tawhid, or the 'unity of Allah,' which in the context of human actions such as hearing, sight, seizing, and walking, consists of realizing the words of the Koran about Allah that,  

"It is He who created you and what you do" (Koran 37:96). 

The origin of the way of the Sufi thus lies in the prophetic sunna. The sincerity to Allah that it entails was the rule among the earliest Muslims, to whom this was simply a state of being without a name, while it only became a distinct discipline when the majority of the Community had drifted away and changed from this state. Muslims of subsequent generations required systematic effort to attain it, and it was because of the change in the Islamic environment after the earliest generations, that a discipline by the name of Tasawwuf came to exist.  

But if this is true of origins, the more significant question is: How central is Tasawwuf to the religion, and: Where does it fit into Islam as a whole? Perhaps the best answer is the hadith of Muslim, that 'Umar ibn al-Khattab said:  

As we sat one day with the Messenger of Allah (Allah bless him and give him peace), a man in pure white clothing and jet black hair came to us, without a trace of travelling upon him, though none of us knew him. 

He sat down before the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) bracing his knees against his, resting his hands on his legs, and said: "Muhammad, tell me about Islam." The Messenger of Allah (Allah bless him and give him peace) said: "Islam is to testify that there is no god but Allah and that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah, and to perform the prayer, give zakat, fast in Ramadan, and perform the pilgrimage to the House if you can find a way." 

He said: "You have spoken the truth," and we were surprised that he should ask and then confirm the answer. Then he said: "Tell me about true faith (iman)," and the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) answered: "It is to believe in Allah, His angels, His inspired Books, His messengers, the Last Day, and in destiny, its good and evil." 

"You have spoken the truth," he said, "Now tell me about the perfection of faith (ihsan)," and the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) answered: "It is to worship Allah as if you see Him, and if you see Him not, He nevertheless sees you." 

The hadith continues to where 'Umar said: 

Then the visitor left. I waited a long while, and the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) said to me, "Do you know, 'Umar, who was the questioner?" and I replied, "Allah and His messenger know best." He said,  

"It was Gabriel, who came to you to teach you your religion" (Sahih Muslim, 1.37: hadith 8).  

This is a sahih hadith, described by Imam Nawawi as one of the hadiths upon which the Islamic religion turns. The use of din in the last words of it, Atakum yu'allimukum dinakum, "came to you to teach you your religion" entails that the religion of Islam is composed of the three fundamentals mentioned in the hadith: Islam, or external compliance with what Allah asks of us; Iman, or the belief in the unseen that the prophets have informed us of; and Ihsan, or to worship Allah as though one sees Him. The Koran says, in Surat Maryam,  

"Surely We have revealed the Remembrance, and surely We shall preserve it" (Koran 15:9),  

and if we reflect how Allah, in His wisdom, has accomplished this, we see that it is by human beings, the traditional scholars He has sent at each level of the religion. The level of Islam has been preserved and conveyed to us by the Imams of Shari'a or 'Sacred Law' and its ancillary disciplines; the level of Iman, by the Imams of 'Aqida or 'tenets of faith'; and the level of Ihsan, "to worship Allah as though you see Him," by the Imams of Tasawwuf.  

The hadith's very words "to worship Allah" show us the interrelation of these three fundamentals, for the how of "worship" is only known through the external prescriptions of Islam, while the validity of this worship in turn presupposes Iman or faith in Allah and the Islamic revelation, without which worship would be but empty motions; while the words, "as if you see Him," show that Ihsan implies a human change, for it entails the experience of what, for most of us, is not experienced. So to understand Tasawwuf, we must look at the nature of this change in relation to both Islam and Iman, and this is the main focus of my talk tonight.  

At the level of Islam, we said that Tasawwuf requires Islam,through 'submission to the rules of Sacred Law.' But Islam, for its part, equally requires Tasawwuf. Why? For the very good reason that the sunna which Muslims have been commanded to follow is not just the words and actions of the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace), but also his states, states of the heart such as taqwa 'godfearingness,' ikhlas 'sincerity,' tawakkul 'reliance on Allah,' rahma 'mercy,' tawadu' 'humility,' and so on.  

Now, it is characteristic of the Islamic ethic that human actions are not simply divided into two shades of morality, right or wrong; but rather five, arranged in order of their consequences in the next world. The obligatory (wajib) is that whose performance is rewarded by Allah in the next life and whose nonperformance is punished. The recommended (mandub) is that whose performance is rewarded, but whose nonperformance is not punished. The permissible (mubah) is indifferent, unconnected with either reward or punishment. The offensive (makruh) is that whose nonperformance is rewarded but whose performance is not punished. The unlawful (haram) is that whose nonperformance is rewarded and whose performance is punished, if one dies unrepentant.  

Human states of the heart, the Koran and sunna make plain to us, come under each of these headings. Yet they are not dealt with in books of fiqh or 'Islamic jurisprudence,' because unlike the prayer, zakat, or fasting, they are not quantifiable in terms of the specific amount of them that must be done. But though they are not countable, they are of the utmost importance to every Muslim. Let's look at a few examples. 

(1) Love of Allah. In Surat al-Baqara of the Koran, Allah blames those who ascribe associates to Allah whom they love as much as they love Allah. Then He says,  

"And those who believe are greater in love for Allah" (Koran 2:165), making being a believer conditional upon having greater love for Allah than any other. 

(2) Mercy. Bukhari and Muslim relate that the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) said, "Whomever is not merciful to people, Allah will show no mercy" (Sahih Muslim, 4.1809: hadith 2319), and Tirmidhi relates the well authenticated (hasan) hadith "Mercy is not taken out of anyone except the damned" (al-Jami' al-sahih, 4.323: hadith 1923). 

(3) Love of each other. Muslim relates in his Sahih that the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) said, "By Him in whose hand is my soul, none of you shall enter paradise until you believe, and none of you shall believe until you love one another . . . ." (Sahih Muslim, 1.74: hadith 54). 

(4) Presence of mind in the prayer (salat). Abu Dawud relates in his Sunan that 'Ammar ibn Yasir heard the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) say, "Truly, a man leaves, and none of his prayer has been recorded for him except a tenth of it, a ninth of it, eighth of it, seventh of it, sixth of it, fifth of it, fourth of it, third of it, a half of it" (Sunan Abi Dawud, 1.211: hadith 796)-meaning that none of a person's prayer counts for him except that in which he is present in his heart with Allah. 

(5) Love of the Prophet. Bukhari relates in his Sahih that the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) said, "None of you believes until I am more beloved to him than his father, his son, and all people" (Fath al-Bari, 1.58, hadith 15). 

It is plain from these texts that none of the states mentioned-whether mercy, love, or presence of heart-are quantifiable, for the Shari'a cannot specify that one must "do two units of mercy" or "have three units of presence of mind" in the way that the number of rak'as of prayer can be specified, yet each of them is personally obligatory for the Muslim. Let us complete the picture by looking at a few examples of states that are haram or 'strictly unlawful':  

(1) Fear of anyone besides Allah. Allah Most High says in Surat al-Baqara of the Koran,  

"And fulfill My covenant: I will fulfill your covenant-And fear Me alone" (Koran 2:40), the last phrase of which, according to Imam Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, "establishes that a human being is obliged to fear no one besides Allah Most High" (Tafsir al-Fakhr al-Razi, 3.42). 

(2) Despair. Allah Most High says,  

"None despairs of Allah's mercy except the people who disbelieve" (Koran 12:87), indicating the unlawfulness of this inward state by coupling it with the worst human condition possible, that of unbelief. 

(3) Arrogance. Muslim relates in his Sahih that the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) said, "No one shall enter paradise who has a particle of arrogance in his heart" (Sahih Muslim, 1.93: hadith 91). 

(4) Envy,meaning to wish for another to lose the blessings he enjoys. Abu Dawud relates that the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) said, "Beware of envy, for envy consumes good works as flames consume firewood" (Sunan Abi Dawud, 4.276: hadith 4903). 

(5) Showing off in acts of worship. Al-Hakim relates with a sahih chain of transmission that the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) said, "The slightest bit of showing off in good works is as if worshipping others with Allah . . . ." (al-Mustadrak 'ala al-Sahihayn, 1.4).  

These and similar haram inward states are not found in books of fiqh or 'jurisprudence,' because fiqh can only deal with quantifiable descriptions of rulings. Rather, they are examined in their causes and remedies by the scholars of the 'inner fiqh' of Tasawwuf, men such as Imam al-Ghazali in his Ihya' 'ulum al-din [The reviving of the religious sciences], Imam al-Rabbani in his Maktubat [Letters], al-Suhrawardi in his 'Awarif al-Ma'arif [The knowledges of the illuminates], Abu Talib al-Makki in Qut al-qulub [The sustenance of hearts], and similar classic works, which discuss and solve hundreds of ethical questions about the inner life. These are books of Shari'a and their questions are questions of Sacred Law, of how it is lawful or unlawful for a Muslim to be; and they preserve the part of the prophetic sunna dealing with states. 

Who needs such information? All Muslims, for the Koranic verses and authenticated hadiths all point to the fact that a Muslim must not only do certain things and say certain things, but also must be something, must attain certain states of the heart and eliminate others. Do we ever fear someone besides Allah? Do we have a particle of arrogance in our hearts? Is our love for the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) greater than our love for any other human being? Is there the slightest bit of showing off in our good works? 

Half a minute's reflection will show the Muslim where he stands on these aspects of his din, and why in classical times, helping Muslims to attain these states was not left to amateurs, but rather delegated to 'ulama of the heart, the scholars of Islamic Tasawwuf. For most people, these are not easy transformations to make, because of the force of habit, because of the subtlety with which we can deceive ourselves, but most of all because each of us has an ego, the self, the Me, which is called in Arabic al-nafs, about which Allah testifies in Surat Yusuf: 

"Verily the self ever commands to do evil" (Koran 12:53).  

If you do not believe it, consider the hadith related by Muslim in his Sahih, that: 

The first person judged on Resurrection Day will be a man martyred in battle. 

He will be brought forth, Allah will reacquaint him with His blessings upon him and the man will acknowledge them, whereupon Allah will say, "What have you done with them?" to which the man will respond, "I fought to the death for You." 

Allah will reply, "You lie. You fought in order to be called a hero, and it has already been said." Then he will be sentenced and dragged away on his face and flung into the fire. 

Then a man will be brought forward who learned Sacred Knowledge, taught it to others, and who recited the Koran. Allah will remind him of His gifts to him and the man will acknowledge them, and then Allah will say, "What have you done with them?" The man will answer, "I acquired Sacred Knowledge, taught it, and recited the Koran, for Your sake." 

Allah will say, "You lie. You learned so as to be called a scholar, and read the Koran so as to be called a reciter, and it has already been said." Then the man will be sentenced and dragged away on his face to be flung into the fire. 

Then a man will be brought forward whom Allah generously provided for, giving him various kinds of wealth, and Allah will recall to him the benefits given, and the man will acknowledge them, to which Allah will say, "And what have you done with them?" The man will answer, "I have not left a single kind of expenditure You love to see made, except that I have spent on it for Your sake." 

Allah will say, "You lie. You did it so as to be called generous, and it has already been said." Then he will be sentenced and dragged away on his face to be flung into the fire (Sahih Muslim, 3.1514: hadith 1905). 

We should not fool ourselves about this, because our fate depends on it: in our childhood, our parents taught us how to behave through praise or blame, and for most of us, this permeated and colored our whole motivation for doing things. But when childhood ends, and we come of age in Islam, the religion makes it clear to us, both by the above hadith and by the words of the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) "The slightest bit of showing off in good works is as if worshipping others with Allah" that being motivated by what others think is no longer good enough, and that we must change our motives entirely, and henceforth be motivated by nothing but desire for Allah Himself. The Islamic revelation thus tells the Muslim that it is obligatory to break his habits of thinking and motivation, but it does not tell him how. For that, he must go to the scholars of these states, in accordance with the Koranic imperative, 

"Ask those who know if you know not" (Koran 16:43), 

There is no doubt that bringing about this change, purifying the Muslims by bringing them to spiritual sincerity, was one of the central duties of the Prophet Muhammad (Allah bless him and give him peace), for Allah says in the Surat Al 'Imran of the Koran, 

"Allah has truly blessed the believers, for He has sent them a messenger of themselves, who recites His signs to them and purifies them, and teaches them the Book and the Wisdom" (Koran 3:164), 

which explicitly lists four tasks of the prophetic mission, the second of which, yuzakkihim means precisely to 'purify them' and has no other lexical sense. Now, it is plain that this teaching function cannot, as part of an eternal revelation, have ended with the passing of the first generation, a fact that Allah explictly confirms in His injunction in Surat Luqman, 

"And follow the path of him who turns unto Me" (Koran 31:15). 

These verses indicate the teaching and transformative role of those who convey the Islamic revelation to Muslims, and the choice of the word ittiba' in the second verse, which is more general, implies both keeping the company of and following the example of a teacher. This is why in the history of Tasawwuf, we find that though there were many methods and schools of thought, these two things never changed: keeping the company of a teacher, and following his example-in exactly the same way that the Sahaba were uplifted and purified by keeping the company of the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) and following his example.  

And this is why the discipline of Tasawwuf has been preserved and transmitted by Tariqas or groups of students under a particular master. First, because this was the sunna of the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) in his purifying function described by the Koran. Secondly, Islamic knowledge has never been transmitted by writings alone, but rather from 'ulama to students. Thirdly, the nature of the knowledge in question is of hal or 'state of being,' not just knowing, and hence requires it be taken from a succession of living masters back to the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace), for the sheer range and number of the states of heart required by the revelation effectively make imitation of the personal example of a teacher the only effective means of transmission.  

So far we have spoken about Tasawwuf in respect to Islam, as a Shari'a science necessary to fully realize the Sacred Law in one's life, to attain the states of the heart demanded by the Koran and hadith. This close connection between Shari'a and Tasawwuf is expressed by the statement of Imam Malik, founder of the Maliki school, that "he who practices Tasawwuf without learning Sacred Law corrupts his faith, while he who learns Sacred Law without practicing Tasawwuf corrupts himself. Only he who combines the two proves true." This is why Tasawwuf was taught as part of the traditional curriculum in madrasas across the Muslim world from Malaysia to Morocco, why many of the greatest Shari'a scholars of this Umma have been Sufis, and why until the end of the Islamic caliphate at the beginning of this century and the subsequent Western control and cultural dominance of Muslim lands, there were teachers of Tasawwuf in Islamic institutions of higher learning from Lucknow to Istanbul to Cairo.  

But there is a second aspect of Tasawwuf that we have not yet talked about; namely, its relation to Iman or 'True Faith,' the second pillar of the Islamic religion, which in the context of the Islamic sciences consists of 'Aqida or 'orthodox belief.' 

All Muslims believe in Allah, and that He is transcendently beyond anything conceivable to the minds of men, for the human intellect is imprisoned within its own sense impressions and the categories of thought derived from them, such as number, directionality, spatial extention, place, time, and so forth. Allah is beyond all of that; in His own words,  

"There is nothing whatesover like unto Him" (Koran 42:11) 

If we reflect for a moment on this verse, in the light of the hadith of Muslim about Ihsan that "it is to worship Allah as though you see Him," we realize that the means of seeing here is not the eye, which can only behold physical things like itself; nor yet the mind, which cannot transcend its own impressions to reach the Divine, but rather certitude, the light of Iman, whose locus is not the eye or the brain, but rather the ruh, a subtle faculty Allah has created within each of us called the soul, whose knowledge is unobstructed by the bounds of the created universe. Allah Most High says, by way of exalting the nature of this faculty by leaving it a mystery, 

"Say: 'The soul is of the affair of my Lord'" (Koran 17:85). 

The food of this ruh is dhikr or the 'remembrance of Allah.' Why? Because acts of obedience increase the light of certainty and Iman in the soul, and dhikr is among the greatest of them, as is attested to by the sahih hadith related by al-Hakim that the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) said, 

"Shall I not tell you of the best of your works, the purest of them in the eyes of your Master, the highest in raising your rank, better than giving gold and silver, and better for you than to meet your enemy and smite their necks, and they smite yours?" They said, "This-what is it, O Messenger of Allah?" and he said: Dhikru Llahi 'azza wa jall, "The remembrance of Allah Mighty and Majestic." (al-Mustadrak 'ala al-Sahihayn, 1.496). 

Increasing the strength of Iman through good actions, and particularly through the medium of dhikr has tremendous implications for the Islamic religion and traditional spirituality. A non-Muslim once asked me, "If God exists, then why all this beating around the bush? Why doesn't He just come out and say so?"  

The answer is that taklif or 'moral responsibility' in this life is not only concerned with outward actions, but with what we believe, our 'Aqida-and the strength with which we believe it. If belief in God and other eternal truths were effortless in this world, there would be no point in Allah making us responsible for it, it would be automatic, involuntary, like our belief, say, that London is in England. There would no point in making someone responsible for something impossible not to believe.  

But the responsibility Allah has place upon us is belief in the Unseen, as a test for us in this world to choose between kufr and Iman, to distinguish believer from unbeliever, and some believers above others. 

This why strengthening Iman through dhikr is of such methodological importance for Tasawwuf: we have not only been commanded as Muslims to believe in certain things, but have been commanded to have absolute certainty in them. The world we see around us is composed of veils of light and darkness: events come that knock the Iman out of some of us, and Allah tests each of us as to the degree of certainty with which we believe the eternal truths of the religion. It was in this sense that 'Umar ibn al-Khattab said, "If the Iman of Abu Bakr were weighed against the Iman of the entire Umma, it would outweigh it." 

Now, in traditional 'Aqida one of the most important tenets is the wahdaniyya or 'oneness and uniqueness' of Allah Most High. This means He is without any sharik or associate in His being, in His attributes, or in His acts. But the ability to hold this insight in mind in the rough and tumble of daily life is a function of the strength of certainty (yaqin) in one's heart. Allah tells the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) in Surat al-A'raf of the Koran,  

"Say: 'I do not possess benefit for myself or harm, except as Allah wills'" (Koran 7:188), 

yet we tend to rely on ourselves and our plans, in obliviousness to the facts of 'Aqida that ourselves and our plans have no effect, that Allah alone brings about effects. 

If you want to test yourself on this, the next time you contact someone with good connections whose help is critical to you, take a look at your heart at the moment you ask him to put in a good word for you with someone, and see whom you are relying upon. If you are like most of us, Allah is not at the forefront of your thoughts, despite the fact that He alone is controlling the outcome. Isn't this a lapse in your 'Aqida, or, at the very least, in your certainty?  

Tasawwuf corrects such shortcomings by step-by-step increasing the Muslim's certainty in Allah. The two central means of Tasawwuf in attaining the conviction demanded by 'Aqida are mudhakara, or learning the traditional tenets of Islamic faith, and dhikr, deepening one's certainty in them by remembrance of Allah. It is part of our faith that, in the words of the Koran in Surat al-Saffat,  

"Allah has created you and what you do" (Koran 37:96);  

yet for how many of us is this day to day experience? Because Tasawwuf remedies this and other shortcomings of Iman, by increasing the Muslim's certainty through a systematic way of teaching and dhikr, it has traditionally been regarded as personally obligatory to this pillar of the religion also, and from the earliest centuries of Islam, has proved its worth.  

The last question we will deal with tonight is: What about the bad Sufis we read about, who contravene the teachings of Islam?  

The answer is that there are two meanings of Sufi: the first is "Anyone who considers himself a Sufi," which is the rule of thumb of orientalist historians of Sufism and popular writers, who would oppose the "Sufis" to the "Ulama." I think the Koranic verses and hadiths we have mentioned tonight about the scope and method of true Tasawwuf show why we must insist on the primacy of the definition of a Sufi as "a man of religious learning who applied what he knew, so Allah bequeathed him knowledge of what he did not know."  

The very first thing a Sufi, as a man of religious learning knows is that the Shari'a and 'Aqida of Islam are above every human being. Whoever does not know this will never be a Sufi, except in the orientalist sense of the word-like someone standing in front of the stock exchange in an expensive suit with a briefcase to convince people he is a stockbroker. A real stockbroker is something else. 

Because this distinction is ignored today by otherwise well-meaning Muslims, it is often forgotten that the 'ulama who have criticized Sufis, such as Ibn al-Jawzi in his Talbis Iblis [The Devil's deception], or Ibn Taymiya in places in his Fatawa, or Ibn al-Qayyim al-Jawziyya, were not criticizing Tasawwuf as an ancillary discipline to the Shari 'a. The proof of this is Ibn al-Jawzi's five-volume Sifat al-safwa, which contains the biographies of the very same Sufis mentioned in al-Qushayri's famous Tasawwuf manual al-Risala al-Qushayriyya. Ibn Taymiya considered himself a Sufi of the Qadiri order, and volumes ten and eleven of his thirty-seven-volume Majmu' al-fatawa are devoted to Tasawwuf. And Ibn al-Qayyim al-Jawziyya wrote his three-volume Madarij al-salikin, a detailed commentary on 'Abdullah al-Ansari al-Harawi's tract on the spiritual stations of the Sufi path, Manazil al-sa'irin. These works show that their authors' criticisms were not directed at Tasawwuf as such, but rather at specific groups of their times, and they should be understood for what they are.  

As in other Islamic sciences, mistakes historically did occur in Tasawwuf, most of them stemming from not recognizing the primacy of Shari 'a and 'Aqida above all else. But these mistakes were not different in principle from, for example, the Isra'iliyyat (baseless tales of Bani Isra'il) that crept into tafsir literature, or the mawdu'at (hadith forgeries) that crept into the hadith. These were not taken as proof that tafsir was bad, or hadith was deviance, but rather, in each discipline, the errors were identified and warned against by Imams of the field, because the Umma needed the rest. And such corrections are precisely what we find in books like Qushayri's Risala,Ghazali's Ihya' and other works of Sufism. 

For all of the reasons we have mentioned, Tasawwuf was accepted as an essential part of the Islamic religion by the 'ulama of this Umma. The proof of this is all the famous scholars of Shari'a sciences who had the higher education of Tasawwuf, among them Ibn 'Abidin, al-Razi, Ahmad Sirhindi, Zakariyya al-Ansari, al-'Izz ibn 'Abd al-Salam, Ibn Daqiq al-'Eid, Ibn Hajar al-Haytami, Shah Wali Allah, Ahmad Dardir, Ibrahim al-Bajuri, 'Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi, Imam al-Nawawi, Taqi al-Din al-Subki, and al-Suyuti.  

Among the Sufis who aided Islam with the sword as well as the pen, to quote Reliance of the Traveller, were: 

such men as the Naqshbandi sheikh Shamil al-Daghestani, who fought a prolonged war against the Russians in the Caucasus in the nineteenth century; Sayyid Muhammad 'Abdullah al-Somali, a sheikh of the Salihiyya order who led Muslims against the British and Italians in Somalia from 1899 to 1920; the Qadiri sheikh 'Uthman ibn Fodi, who led jihad in Northern Nigeria from 1804 to 1808 to establish Islamic rule; the Qadiri sheikh 'Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri, who led the Algerians against the French from 1832 to 1847; the Darqawi faqir al-Hajj Muhammad al-Ahrash, who fought the French in Egypt in 1799; the Tijani sheikh al-Hajj 'Umar Tal, who led Islamic Jihad in Guinea, Senegal, and Mali from 1852 to 1864; and the Qadiri sheikh Ma' al-'Aynayn al-Qalqami, who helped marshal Muslim resistance to the French in northern Mauritania and southern Morocco from 1905 to 1909.  

Among the Sufis whose missionary work Islamized entire regions are such men as the founder of the Sanusiyya order, Muhammad 'Ali Sanusi, whose efforts and jihad from 1807 to 1859 consolidated Islam as the religion of peoples from the Libyan Desert to sub-Saharan Africa; [and] the Shadhili sheikh Muhammad Ma'ruf and Qadiri sheikh Uways al-Barawi, whose efforts spread Islam westward and inland from the East African Coast . . . . (Reliance of the Traveller,863). 

It is plain from the examples of such men what kind of Muslims have been Sufis; namely, all kinds, right across the board-and that Tasawwuf did not prevent them from serving Islam in any way they could. 

To summarize everything I have said tonight: In looking first at Tasawwuf and Shari'a, we found that many Koranic verses and sahih hadiths oblige the Muslim to eliminate haram inner states as arrogance, envy, and fear of anyone besides Allah; and on the other hand, to acquire such obligatory inner states as mercy, love of one's fellow Muslims, presence of mind in prayer, and love of the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace). We found that these inward states could not be dealt with in books of fiqh, whose purpose is to specify the outward, quantifiable aspects of the Shari 'a. The knowledge of these states is nevertheless of the utmost importance to every Muslim, and this is why it was studied under the 'ulama of Ihsan, the teachers of Tasawwuf, in all periods of Islamic history until the beginning of the present century. 

We then turned to the level of Iman, and found that though the 'Aqida of Muslims is that Allah alone has any effect in this world, keeping this in mind in everhday life is not a given of human consciousness, but rather a function of a Muslim's yaqin, his certainty. And we found that Tasawwuf, as an ancillary discipline to 'Aqida, emphasizes the systematic increase of this certainty through both mudhakara, 'teaching tenets of faith' and dhikr, 'the remembrance of Allah,' in accordance with the words of the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) about Ihsan that "it is worship Allah as though you see Him." 

Lastly, we found that accusations against Tasawwuf made by scholars such as Ibn al-Jawzi, and Ibn Taymiya were not directed against Tasawwuf in principle, but to specific groups and individuals in the times of these authors, the proof for which is the other books by the same authors that showed their understanding of Tasawwuf as a Shari'a science.  

To return to the starting point of my talk this evening, with the disappearance of traditional Islamic scholars from the Umma, two very different pictures of Tasawwuf emerge today. If we read books written after the dismantling of the traditional fabric of Islam by colonial powers in the last century, we find the big hoax: Islam without spirituality and Shari 'a without Tasawwuf. But if we read the classical works of Islamic scholarship, we learn that Tasawwuf has been a Shari'a science like tafsir, hadith, or any other, throughout the history of Islam. The Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) said, 

"Truly, Allah does not look at your outward forms and wealth, but rather at your hearts and your works" (Sahih Muslim, 4.1389: hadith 2564). 

And this is the brightest hope that Islam can offer a modern world darkened by materialism and nihilism: Islam as it truly is; the hope of eternal salvation through a religion of brotherhood and social and economic justice outwardly, and the direct experience of divine love and illumination inwardly.

Other articles to read:-

what does Islam say about Sufism?

In the Name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful. 



All thanks and praise are due to Allah and peace and blessings be upon His Messenger. 

Responding to this question, Dr. Taha Jabir Al-`Alwani, president of the Graduate School of Islamic and Social Sciences and president of the Fiqh Council of North America, states the following: 

"The origin of Sufism is traced back to the first century of Hijrah when some of the Companions and the Successors tried to stay away from everything they got after they conquered Iraq, Egypt, Syria and the other countries. Some of them decided to continue as Mujahidin or fighters for the Sake of Allah or to be busy themselves with acts of worship and serving the Muslim Ummah in teaching or some other service in different parts of the world. At that time they were given the title Az-Zuhhad (sing. Zahid). Zahid means the person who dislikes to have excessive approach to that which is lawful because he is afraid that this would lead him to some kind of negligence in observing acts of worship. 

After that, Sufism, like any other part of knowledge and activities, grew up and a lot of the Sufis like Abul Qasim Al-Junaid al-Baghdadi practiced it. People like Al-Junaid and many others became examples for any person who wants to purify himself and prepare himself for the Hereafter. 

After the fourth century of Hijrah, Sufism was divided into two kinds;the Sunni Sufism and the Bid`i (Innovative) Sufism. The first one means to practice Zuhd (Asceticism) and the worship Allah according to the Sunnah of the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, and the way of life of his Companions. 

The other kind of Sufism, however, means that kind of Sufism based on the teaching and way of life of the people who came from India and Persia and some other places to join the Muslim nation and Islam. They practiced their way of Sufism in the Muslim environment. 

With this, Muslim scholars took different positions regarding Sufism. Some of them supported it and the majority of them accepted Sufism because they knew it is a part of the Sunnah and the way of life of the Rightly Guided Caliphs. 

On the other hand, some other people objected some kinds of Sufism and some orders who were practicing that Innovative Sufism. We should be careful when we deal with this issue and we should judge the people and the orders according to the light of the Qur'an and the Sunnah of the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him. We need to adopt the Sufism which was practiced by the Companions and the Rightly Guided Caliphs." 



Almighty Allah knows best. 

2.What do we have to know about Sufism? And what is Islam's stand on it?

In the Name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful. 



All praise and thanks are due to Allah, and peace and blessings be upon His Messenger. 



Responding to the question you raised, the eminent Muslim scholar, Sheikh Yusuf Al-Qaradawi, states: 

"Sufism is a form of practicing an ascetic way of life. Such an act of worship is recognized by all religions though the way of practicing it differs from one religion to another. 

For instance, in India, the Hindus' lower class tend to go to extremes by inflicting tortures on themselves just with the aim of reaching an exalted level of spirituality. The same applies to Christianity, especially to celibacy. 

Also in Persia, there is a sect known as Manism, while in Greece there is another sect known as "Ar-Ruwakiyeen" (People who reject life luxuries). In fact, in many other countries, there are similar groups who are somehow extremist in their beliefs. In a sharp contrast to all this, Islam came with a moderate approach to life and man's relation with his Lord. It views man as a human being of mind, soul and body, and it has made it clear that all these components need a special care. 

This is what the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) made clear to one of his Companions, `Abdullah ibn `Amr ibn Al-`Aaas, who took to extremes in worshipping Allah, to the extent that he gave up eating, sleeping and even his conjugal right. The Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) warned him against that saying: "...Your eyes have a right on you, and your body and your family (i.e. wife) have a right on you. Give everyone his due right." 

Also some Companions went to the Prophet's house to ask his wife how he used to observe acts of worship. Upon being told the details of his acts of worship they found theirs falling behind those of the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him). They deemed themselves falling short of the required standard of being a true believer. Besides, they saw no reason why they shouldn't do like or even exceed him in worship, for he actually had been forgiven all his sins. Therefore, they started making vows of getting down to an extensive act of worship. One of them vowed to start observing a non-stop fasting (without breaking it at all), the other vowed to abandon his conjugal right, while the third said that he would observe supererogatory prayers for all nights without sleeping. Upon being told of this, the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) gathered them and admonished them saying: "By Allah, I am more submissive to Allah and more afraid of Him than you; yet I fast and break my fast, I do sleep and I also marry women. So he who does not follow my tradition in religion, is not from me (not one of my followers)." This shows that Islam maintains moderation in everything. 

However, people tend to practice Sufism as a means of rescuing themselves from the throes of materialism that has taken its toll on them, thanks to the abundance of property and economic boom in which people found themselves. All this has made them enslaved by life's luxuries in addition to being governed by baseless ideologies. Thus, religious beliefs have been attributed to the dictates of philosophy and theology, and this led to frenzied argument that completely made people neglect spiritual aspects of life. 

Meanwhile, those who engaged themselves in Islamic jurisprudence failed to go deeper in it; instead of trying to understand the spiritual aspect of worship, they merely stuck to its physical aspects. This gave birth to a religious group known as Sufis who came to fill the gap left by theologians and jurists; as I've just said, the latter failed to transform people spiritually. 

The Sufis give a great concern to analyzing man in terms of what he feels inside, not what he really does; they focus on psychological matters, with the inward rather than the outward. Their main objective is to reshape man's manners in order to help him achieve spiritual grace. One of the Sufis is quoted to have said: "Good manners are what make a good Sufi." 

Actually, the early Sufis set a good example by sticking to the teachings of Islam as conveyed by the Glorious Qur'an and the Prophetic Tradition. Besides, they did their best in propagating Islam, in fact, many people were converted to Islam by these great Sufis who left no stone unturned in waging war against heresy, atheism and polytheism. 

On the other hand, history also recorded bad examples laid down by some Sufis who formulated ideas that have no basis in Islam. Part of these ideas is the difference between reality and perception, in the sense that man should not be judged by his apparent acts (i.e. by what we perceive of him), rather he should be judged by the state of his mind (i.e. by what he really feels inside). Through this one may find some excuses for his misdemeanor. They also say that the inner feelings of a Sufi are his source of guidance; through them he knows the lawful and the forbidden. That is why they always find faults with the scholars of Hadith who always say "So-and-so quotes so-and-so as saying." They find such narration as inauthentic. Rather, a genuine statement, approved of by the Sufis, should begin with: "I was inspired by my Lord that" They also used to mock the scholars of Hadith saying: "You are fond of narrating statements from mortals. But we, Sufis, narrate our statements from Allah, the Everlasting Lord." With this they claim to have a direct link with heavens. All such baseless ideas led the Sufis to take their students as worthless figures; they say: "In front of their Sufi masters, students are just like a helpless corpse at the control of those who wash it." Not only that, they even deprive the students of the right of seeking more information from masters; they consider such act as a starting point of failure. 

To say the fact, such a perverted attitude of this group of Sufis has taken its toll on today's youth who are driven by ignorance to take all that they hear for granted. Such exaggeration results in weakening the character of the Sufi under the authority of his Sheikh, as the Sufi becomes so helpless like a dead between the hands of his undertaker or the one who washes him. Thus, they develop a negative and passive attitude towards oppression and injustice, thanks to what their Sufi masters tell them that "Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's, and let the Lord of man take care of man." 

However, as a spot of light seen at the end of the tunnel, some Sunni scholars as well as early virtuous Muslims (Salaf) have tried their best to reform many Sufi ideas with the teachings of the Qur'an and the Prophetic Tradition. 

One of the great scholars whose efforts are undeniable in this respect is Ibn Al-Qayyim who wrote a book entitled Madarij As-Salikin ila Manazil As-Sa'irin. This book is written purposefully to explain the book written by Sheikh Isma`il Al-Harwi Al-Hanbali, entitled: Manazil As-Sa'irin ila Maqamat Iyyaka Na`budu Waiyyaka Nasta`in. The book is in three volumes, one can resort to it to coordinate between the Sufi ideas and the teachings of the Qur'an and Sunnah. 

By and large, we should try to take from Sufi ideas what corresponds to the teachings of Islam, such as the one that calls to noble values of mutual love, as well as one that teaches one how to get rid of psychological ailments and to attain spiritual grace. 

In fact, there are some examples of good Sufis, with some minor exceptions, from whom one can understand better this form of worship. Imam al-Ghazali is one of such moderate Sufi figures whose ideas go in line with the teachings of Islam." 



Some Books on Islamic Sufism
  1.F.Schuon:Understanding Islam(London,1963)
  2.T.Burckhardt:an introduction to Sufi Doctrine(lahore,1959)
  3.M.Lings:A Muslim Saint of the twentieth Century(london,1961)
  4.S.H.Nasr:Three Muslim Sages(Cambridge,(usa) 1964)Ch. 111
  5.Contemplative Disciplines in Sufism by Dr.Mir Valiiddin(East-West Publications,1980)
  6.Love of God,The Sufi Approach(Delhi,1968)By Dr Mir valiuddin
  7.Imam Ghazzali's:ILya Ulim Id Din (Four Volumnes).
  8.Lings, Martin. What is Sufism? 1975 Repr., Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society, 199. 
  9   Massignon, Louis. Hallâj: Mystic and Martyr. Translated, edited and abridged by Herbert Mason. Prnceton: Bollingen, 1994. 
 10.Nicholson, Reynold A. The Mystics of Islam. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1966. 
 11.Sells, Michael A. Early Islamic Mysticism: Sufi, Qur'an, Mi'raj, Poetic and Theological Writings. New Jersey: Paulist Press, 1996. 
 12.Schimmel, Annemarie. The Triumphal Sun. A Study of the Works of Jalâloddin Rumi. Albany: SUNY Press, 1993. 
 13.Schimmel, Annemarie. Mystical Dimensions of Islam. North Carolina: The University of North Carolina Press, 1975. 
14.Schimmel, Annemarie. A Two Colored Brocade: The Imagery of Persian Poetry. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992. 
  15.Trimingham, J. Spencer. The Sufi Orders in Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971

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