Introduction.
One of the recent controversies on this list was about whether wild fruits were
more nutritious than cultivated ones, whether they taste sweeter; whether there
are fundamental differences between wild and domesticated plants in general.
While I won't give any definite answer to these interesting questions, studying
the main staples of the !Kung Bushmen will certainly give the beginning of an
answer. Most of the material below is from "The !Kung San", by Richard B Lee,
Cambridge University Press 1979. I also tried to compare each of the different
foods for which an analysis was available to some of our own common staples,
although such a comparison might seem artificial since plants of the Kalahari
desert are only very distantly related to ours. In addition, keep in mind that
what is true for one hunter-gatherer population is not necessarily true for
others, so the material below shouldn't be considered as representative of
hunter-gatherer diets in general. In fact, the !Kung's diet is very special,
because of 1) the superabundance of the Mongongo nut 2) the scarcity of water
makes some plant foods essential 3) Consumption of meat is relatively low (about
1/3 of the total calories). However, I believe that studying the !Kung's diet is
of interest, since they are considered as one of the most successful cultures.
Below, we study one by one each of the main staples. Keep in mind that the !Kung
exploit over 200 plant species, most of which are less palatable than what is
presented here.
The !Kung live in the Kalahari desert (Africa, southern hemisphere).
The Mongongo
------------
DESCRIPTION:
The Mongongo is a highly nutritious fruit and nut, and constitutes between 1/3
and 1/2 of the total calories of the !Kung Bushmen. They are available almost
all year long. The fruit of the mongongo is composed of five layers, two of them
edible. The skin (exocarp) is pale green when the fruit first falls and ripens
to a rich red after several months on the ground. The skin is peeled off and
discarded. The flesh (mesocarp) is green or red in color, dry and spongy in
texture, and tastes like a date though less sweet. The nut's outer shell
(endocarp) is extremely tough and difficult to crack. The inner shell is only 1
mm thick and encloses the kernel like a glove. It can be peeled off only with
difficulty, and many people chew and swallow the inner shell along with the
kernel. The nutmeat or kernel itself is roughly the shape and size of a small
hazelnut. It is skinless, creamy yellowish white in color, and breaks neatly
into halves. Parts of the kernel tend to cling to the inner shell. Longer
roasting and careful cracking produce a cleaner looking nut for the more
fastidious. The taste is not unlike that of dry roasted cashews or almonds.
After prolonged roasting the kernel turns butterscotch brown or darker and takes
on a unique flavor resembling fine old cheese.
CONSUMPTION:
A freshly fallen fruit (in April) is particularly pleasant to eat raw. After the
flesh is eaten, the whole nuts are set aside for roasting and cracking. By
August the flesh has dried to a powdery texture, and insects ae beginning to
make inroads, but leaving the kernel intact. Late rains can hasten the spoilage
of the flesh. From September to November, about half of the fruits have lost
their flesh to the insects. Those with usable flesh are soaked and cooked; the
others are lightly roasted to char off remaining flesh and to prepare the nuts
for cracking. From November to March, only the nuts remain.
The flesh of the mongongo fruit was eaten whole and raw in the past, but now it
is cooked in an iron cooking pot for 20 minutes.
The nuts are roasted about 5 minutes in a mixture of coals and a small pile of
fry, loose sand. Then, they are cracked. They can be eaten whole, or pounded in
a mortar, or mixed with a variety of vegetable or animal foods.
ANALYSIS:
We will use the following abbreviations:
H2O = moisture, Pr = protein, F = fat, Fb = fiber, CHO = carbohydrate, Cal =
Calories.
Ca = calcium, Mg = magnesium, Fe = iron, Cu = copper, Na = sodium, K =
potassium, P = phosphorus, Zn = zinc, B1 = thiamin, B2 = riboflavin, B3 =
nicotinic acid, C = vitamin C.
Unless stated otherwise, the figures are given for 100 grams, expressed in grams
for H2O, Pr, F, Fb, CHO, and in milligrams for the vitamins and minerals.
We shall compare the mongongo nut (M) with almonds (A) and hazelnuts (H) (dried,
unblanched).
H2O Cal Pr F CHO Fb Ca Mg Fe Cu Na K P Zn B1 B2 B3 C
------------------------------------------------------------------------
M: 4.2 654 28 58 4 1 249 500 2.1 1.9 2 687 704 4.1 .13 .14 ? .6
A: 4.4 589 20 52 20 11 266 296 3.7 .94 11 732 520 2.9 .21 .78 3.4 .6
H: 5.4 632 13 62 15 6 188 285 3.3 1.6 3 445 312 2.4 .5 .11 1.1 1
So, the Mongongo nut is very high in protein, fat, magnesium, zinc, and low in
carbohydrate, fiber, iron, thiamin.
Next, we compare the mongongo fruit (M) with dates (D) (domestic, natural,
dried).
H2O Cal Pr F CHO Fb Ca Mg Fe Cu Na K P Zn B1 B2 B3 C
------------------------------------------------------------------------
M: 13 312 7 .6 70 3.5 90 195 .7 .45 1 1760 46 1.4 ? .1 .1 8.5
D: 22 275 2 .5 73 7.5 32 35 1.1 .29 3 652 40 .29 .1 .1 2.2 ?
Here, we see that the mongongo fruit is exceptionally high in protein, calcium,
magnesium, zinc.
Baobab.
DESCRIPTION
The fruit and nuts are enclosed in a gray green oblong pod with a velvety
exterior. The large pod, 10 to 15 cm, long, weighs 80 to 200g. Inside is a very
dry pulp enclosing 20 to 30 small, soft-shelled seeds, The proportions are: pulp
22%, seeds 31%, waste 47%.
The pods fall on the ground when ripe (season: May to September).
CONSUMPTION
The seeds are often difficult to separate from the pulp; in young pods both can
be eaten together from the pod. If the pod is mature, the pulp is pounded gently
to separate it from the seeds; then with the seed removed the pulp is pounded
into a fine flour. Water is added, and the fruit is usually eaten as a porridge
or as a refreshing drink. The fruit's taste is pleasant and highly acidic (due
to the exceptionally high vitamin C of 213 mg per 100 grams of the pulp). The
seeds, when roasted, have a rich nutty flavor.
Here is the nutritional table of the baobab (nut and fruit):
H2O Cal Pr F CHO Fb Ca Mg Fe Cu Na K P Zn B1 B2 B3 C
------------------------------------------------------------------------
5.2 388 14 14 51 11 272 630 10 2.5 76 4173 1166 7 ? ? ? ?
Here, I won't compare it to anything (perhaps we should treat it like an
intermediate between a fruit and a nut). The protein content is high, as well as
the contents in magnesium, calcium, iron, potassium, phosphorus, and vitamins B1
and C.
Vegetable ivory palm (!Hani)
--------------------
DESCRIPTION:
The seed is round, about 5 cm in diameter, and consists of a thin, red dry.
inedible skin; a thin (3 to 5 mm) of edible pulp; and an inedible nutshell. The
nut itself, inside the nutshell, is a 15 mm round ball of an extremely hard
substance. The seeds weigh 73 g. In ripe specimens early in the season, about
33% of the total weight of edible pulp. As the seeds dry out, this proportion is
reduced to 25%. Season: June-October.
CONSUMPTION:
The dry skin is peeled off and the fruit is lightly pounded to loosen it from
the shell; the pulp may be eaten directly off the shell, or peeled off with the
fingers, or pounded in the mortar to a coarse meal. It is never cooked or salted
or mixed with water. It may be mixed half-and-half with baobab fruit into a
white and yellow flour, which is then eaten. The pulp of !hani ihas a golden
crumbly texture with a pleasant datelike flavor.
A dwarf form or Hyphaene palm, which may be a different species, yields an
edible heart of palm. It is roasted in a cooking pit in the same way that an
animal is prepared.
ANALYSIS:
H2O Cal Pr F CHO Fb Ca Mg Fe Cu Na K P Zn B1 B2 B3 C
------------------------------------------------------------------------
6.6 302 5 .4 70 10 103 196 2 .5 545 2560 156 .6 ? .1 4.6 20
Thus, compared with the mongongo fruit, it is even more nutritious, especially
regarding sodium, potassium, nicotinic acid, Vitamin C.
Marula nut:
----------
DESCRIPTION:
Season: March-October. The fresh seed is an oval about 2.5 cm long, consisting
of a pale yellow skin, a juicy satiny pulp, and a hard shell containing a small
nutmeat. A shell with a nut but without pulp or skin weighs about 5 g. Despite
its delightful flavor, the outer pulp is not as important a food as the kernel.
CONSUMPTION:
The taste of the nut is superior to that of the mongongo, but is much smaller,
and the nutmeats must be picked out of the shell using a long thorn, which
requires patience. The nuts are usually eaten straight, but they may be mixed
with other foods in the same kind of recipes as the Mongongo.
ANALYSIS:
H2O Cal Pr F CHO Fb Ca Mg Fe Cu Na K P Zn B1 B2 B3 C
------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.0 642 31 57 ? 2.4 106 467 .4 2 388 677 836 ? .04 .1 .7 ?
Thus, the Marula shares some similarities with the mongongo, but has less
calcium, iron and thiamine, more sodium.
Wild orange.
-----------
DESCRIPTION:
10 cm diameter, 438 g average weight. The orange-colored rind is hard and woody,
and the pulp inside is quite unlike an orange, consisting of about 30
lozenge-shaped pips surrounded by a sticky brown pulp. Season of ripeness:
September to December. The unusual element is that people com to the n!o groves
in the late winter when the fruits are unripe, collect the fruits by knocking
them down with thrown sticks or hooking them with the long springhare probe, an
then _bury_them_ 0.5 meter deep to ripen the ground. The burying hastens
ripening and ensures that the fruit will not be spoiled by surface-dwelling
insects.
CONSUMPTION:
The hard rind is opened with a knife and the pulp removed with a spoon or the
hand. The taste is aromatic and pleasantly sweet. The seeds are thoroughly
sucked to remove the pulp and then discarded.
The lesser form, da, is not buried in the ground. If it is found unripe, it is
roasted in the shell to make it edible. Later in the season, when it is found
ripe on the tree, it may be eaten raw. The !Kung older people caution the
children never to eat either species unripe, saying that doing so will make them
vomit.
ANALYSIS
Here, we will compare the wild orange (W) with... the ordinary orange (O).
H2O Cal Pr F CHO Fb Ca Mg Fe Cu Na K P Zn B1 B2 B3 C
------------------------------------------------------------------------
W: 69 114 4 .1 24 1.4 22 23 .3 .1 2.6 354 52 .1 ? .1 .8 18
O: 86 49 1 .3 12 1.4 40 10 .1 .04 0 179 17 .06 .09 .04 .27 48
Well... it seems that the results are distorted by the higher moisture content
of the domestic oranges, which have 14% dry matter instead of 31% dry matter for
the wild orange. Let's try again, by multiplying the second line with 31/14, to
obtain the contents for 31 grams of dry matter.
Cal Pr F CHO Fb Ca Mg Fe Cu Na K P Zn B1 B2 B3 C
---------------------------------------------------------------------
W: 114 4 .1 24 1.4 22 23 .3 .1 2.6 354 52 .1 ? .1 .8 18
O: 89 2 .7 27 3.1 89 22 .2 .1 0 396 38 .1 .2 .09 .5 106
Very similar, except that wild oranges have twice more protein, four times less
calcium, 6 times less vitamin C.
Sour plum
---------
DESCRIPTION:
This tart orange fruit and is related from, !xo!xoni, are found on brown sandy
flats. Season: December-February. The oval fruit, about 2 cm long, consist of a
soft juicy skin with a stringent taste, a layer of tart orange pulp, and an
inedible seed. The fruits are easily collected in season from the stalks of the
tall bushes, but fruits that have fallen on the ground are not collected.
CONSUMPTION:
Raw with or without the peel, or pounded to a pulp in the mortar. In spite of
its tart flavor, it is never mixed with other sweeter food.
ANALYSIS:
As you expect, the sour plum (S) will be compared with the ordinary plum (P)
H2O Cal Pr F CHO Fb Ca Mg Fe Cu Na K P Zn B1 B2 B3 C
---------------------------------------------------------------------
S: 67 ? 3 1 26 .7 6 2 .2 .1 4.6 737 14 ? .04 .04 .08 22
P: 85 55 .9 .6 13 1.5 4 7 .1 .04 0 172 10 .1 .04 .1 .5 9.5
Here again, we will multiply the second line with 33/15:
Cal Pr F CHO Fb Ca Mg Fe Cu Na K P Zn B1 B2 B3 C
---------------------------------------------------------------------
S: ? 3 1 26 .7 6 2 .2 .1 4.6 737 14 ? .04 .04 .08 22
P: 121 2 1 29 3 9 15 .2 .1 0 378 22 .2 .09 .22 1.1 21
Here, the domestic plum contains notably more magnesium, thiamin, riboflavin but
less protein and much less sodium and potassium.
Berries
-------
DESCRIPTION:
There are two major species: Morethlwa and Mokomphata. Their size is comparable
to that of a pea, and consist of a thin, digestible skin; a fibrous, orange,
edible pulp; and a tiny, hard. indigestible seed.
CONSUMPTION:
If ripe and juicy, they are eaten straight. Later in the season, when they have
become dry, water is added and they are pounded in the mortar to loosen the
stringy flesh from the seeds, or a long branched twig may be put in the mixture
and twirled rapidly between the hands like a fire drill to agitate the seeds and
separate the pulp. The mixture is then eaten as a tasty fruit porridge, or more
water is added and the mixture is drunk as a refreshing beverage. The "grewias"
are never cooked or roasted or mixed with other foods. The taste is pleasantly
sweet.
ANALYSIS:
We'll compare the Maphate berry (M) with strawberries (S).
H2O Cal Pr F CHO Fb Ca Mg Fe Cu Na K P Zn B1 B2 B3 C
----------------------------------------------------------------------
M: 18 227 7 .6 48 23 375 195 4 .4 7.4 816 90 .6 .08 .15 2.35 15
S: 91 30 .6 .37 7 2.3 14 10 .38 .049 1 166 19 .13 .02 .066 .23 56.7
Evidently, our strawberries contain considerably more water, so we should
multiply with 82/9:
Cal Pr F CHO Fb Ca Mg Fe Cu Na K P Zn B1 B2 B3 C
-------------------------------------------------------------------
M: 227 7 .6 48 23 375 195 4 .4 7.4 816 90 .6 .08 .15 2.35 15
S: 270 5 3 64 21 130 91 3.5 .4 9.1 1500 170 1.2 .18 .60 2.1 520
No striking differences, except that wild berries contain twice more calcium and
magnesium, twice less potassium, phosphorus, zinc and B1, and much less B2 and
vitamin C.
Wild mango
----------
One of the tastiest. The fruit is the size of a cherry. It has a rich, red,
inedible rind; a bright, orange stringy pulp the color, texture and taste of a
mango; and a hard seed the size of an apricot pit.
The peel is discarded and the pulp is sucked from the seed, and the latter is
tossed away. The fruit is never mixed with other foods.
/Tan root
---------
The root is yam-shaped with a thick, coarse, knobby skin enclosing a fibrous,
white, edible flesh. The roots lie 35 to 60 cm below ground, and weigh 1 to 2
kg.
The root is always roasted. It can be eaten alone (the taste and texture are
excellent), or with other roots, with crumbled animal hide, with mongongo nuts,
or with leafy greens. The !Kung caution that it can cause diarrhea or stomach
ache if eaten raw or underdone.
ANALYSIS:
We compare it with sweet potato (S), and the result for 18 grams of dry matter
of sweet potato (S').
H2O Cal Pr F CHO Fb Ca Mg Fe Cu Na K P Zn B1 B2 B3 C
----------------------------------------------------------------------
T: 82 47 2.2 .1 9 2 202 944 .45 .16 11 262 19 1 .06 ? 1 3.35
S: 73 105 1.6 .3 24 3 22 10 .59 .17 13 204 28 .28 .066 .15 .67 23
S': 48 .7 .1 11 1 10 4 .26 .07 6 88 12 .12 .03 .07 .29 10
Clearly, sweet potato is notably less nutritious, on almost all points.
!Xwa water root
---------------
Serves as a source of water. Eating the pulp is an efficient way of processing
the moisture, but it also requires eating a large amount of fibrous bulk.
Squezzing the liquid out of the pulp solves the bulk problem but is an
inefficient technique (63% efficient). The taste and texture are sweet and
pleasant.
CONSUMPTION:
!Xwa is a good starchy food that mixes well with mongongo nuts. If water is
scarce, meat can be boiled in its juice.
Sha root
--------
May be eaten raw, but are usually roasted. Both the thin reddish skin and the
white crunchy inner flesh are edible. The taste is excellent eaten alone; sha is
also commonly mixed with other roots and with leafy greens.
Tsin bean
---------
The tsin bean is the second most important food of the !Kung in the southern
part of the Dobe area and in Nyae Nyae. The collecting season begins in January,
when the immature beans are collected. After April, the beans shells are hard
and brown; the beans may be eaten raw or processed. Unripe beans may be
sun-dried before further processing. A batch of 50 or so beans is roasted in the
shell for a few minutes in the hot ashes and sand of the cooking fire. The beans
may be eaten whole, and have a rich, strong nutty flavor. Alternatively, the
shelled beans may be pounded in the mortar and then mixed with hot water and
eaten as a soup or porridge.
ANALYSIS:
We'll compare the Tsin bean (T) with peanuts (P) (since both are beans which are
rich in fat).
H2O Cal Pr F CHO Fb Ca Mg Fe Cu Na K P Zn B1 B2 B3 C
----------------------------------------------------------------------
T: 5.2 544 32 36 23 1 136 258 3.3 1 89 849 484 3.8 .9 .8 1.9 2.2
P: 6.5 567 26 49 16 8 92 168 4.6 1 18 705 376 3.2 .6 .1 12 ?
Many similarities here, except that the Tsin bean contains a little more protein
and less fat, more magnesium and sodium, much more riboflavin and much less
niacin.
Tsama melon
-----------
They are an important source of water. The melons are round, pale, green or
yellow in color, and weigh around 1 kg. They are easily collected. The seeds may
be roasted and eaten as well. The flesh is white and hard in texture. Compared
with the domesticated watermelon, the pulp is more bitter than sweet.
Distantly related to the tsama melon is the "bitter" melon, dcha, which is
always cooked before eating to render it more palatable.
ANALYSIS:
We compare the Tsama melon (T) with the watermelon (W)
H2O Cal Pr F CHO Fb Ca Mg Fe Cu Na K P Zn B1 B2 B3 C
----------------------------------------------------------------------
T: 91 21 .4 .1 5 1.7 62 31 .2 .1 3.7 135 3.8 .1 1.8 .03 .98 7.5
W: 91 32 .6 .4 7 .5 8 11 .2 .03 2 116 9 .1 .1 .02 .2 9.6
Clearly, the Tsama melon is more nutritious on almost all points.
Conclusions on the above:
-------------------------
Well, the questions we asked in the introduction don't seem to have a clear
answer (sorry, reality is more complicated than myth). Some fruits taste sweet,
others not. Some trace elements and vitamins are more abundant in some wild
foods, others not. When the effect of water is factored out, some wild foods
contain more fiber, others not. It is certain that their nutrition is determined
by food preferences, availability and foraging/processing time.
To the question: do !Kung bushmen have globally a more nutritious diet than us
(note: they are on average rather short, 160 cm for men and 150 cm for women,
and lean; their caloric consumption in July-August 1964 was 2350 calories/day,
96g protein, 690 calories from meat and 1360 calories from mongongo nuts)?
Well, since mongongo nuts are exceptionally nutritious (at least mineralwise),
the answer is yes. But except for the roots, wild foods don't seem superior to
domestic ones (nor inferior, for that matter). On the other hand, since the
!Kung Bushmen drink less and use roots to obtain moisture, they would indeed
obtain more minerals than us, even if we started eating 1/3 meat and 40% nuts.
Another remark is that, without processing (roasting mongongo shells to make
cracking easier, burying wild oranges, roasting some roots), the !Kung would
have notably less palatable foods to eat. Concerning consumption, there is no
general rule: some foods are consumed straight (raw, unmixed), whereas others
are cooked and mixed with other foods.
By the way, how much protein/fat/carbohydrate did the !Kung eat that winter of
July-August 1964?
[(calculation; please skip this paragraph)
It is said they had 690 calories from meat, of which 34.5 grams protein, so that
should be 138 calories from protein and 552 from fat (assuming there is no
carbohydrate in meat, which is not exactly true).
They had 210 grams of mongongo nuts, which make 238 cal from protein, 1104 from
fat and 31 from carbohydrate.
Then, 300 calories from other vegetables, of which 12 from protein. Assuming the
rest is from carbohydrate (which is not exactly true, but will be compensated by
the error we made with meat), we obtain:]
Calories from...
Protein: 385 (16%)
Carbohydrate: 319 (14%)
Fat: 1656 (70%)
Remark: the proportions are different at other periods of the year, when they
eat less nuts.
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